MPA

Project description 

Title: Exploring the interconnections between Tourism, Marine Protected Areas, and Coral Reef Health: A Socio-Ecological Approach for the Dutch Caribbean

Time: Semptember 2023 - Not defined yet

Project leaders: Wageningen University & Research (Tobia Scisciolo, Lisa Becking, Andries Ritchter, Ingrid van de Leemput)

Project summary:

The decline of coral reefs worldwide, particularly evident in the Caribbean, has been attributed to both local stressors, such as pollution, coastal development, and overfishing and global stressors, including rising sea temperatures. Concurrently, the region has experienced rapid growth in tourism, which has become a vital economic driver for many Caribbean islands. While tourism and coastal development can contribute to diversifying coastal economies and even support marine protected areas (MPAs), they can also exacerbate local stressors and hinder economic resilience. With this PhD within the INREEF project, by recognizing the interdependencies between the social system of tourism, MPAs, and the ecological system of coral reefs, aims to adopt a socio-ecological approach to explore their interactions. This project seeks to assess the role of tourism in MPAs, understand the trajectories and lock-in processes influenced by tourism, and identify possible intervention points to prevent destabilizing feedbacks and protect the socio-ecological systems around coral reefs.

Dutch below 

ORANJESTAD, ARUBA – Fundacion Parke Nacional Aruba (FPNA) in collaboration with Wageningen University & Research, ScubbleBubbles, and University of Aruba are proud to announce the launch of “Turning the Tide”, apilot project aimed at hands–on rehabilitation of Aruba’s spatially linked coral reefs and mangroves. This 15–month project is co–funded by RESEMBID and Wageningen University & Research with an allocated fund of EUR 713,000 for this project to help turn the tide of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss to a healthy and resilient marine environment for Aruba. During its execution and upon completion, this project is integrated into the management of Parke Marino Aruba to guarantee continuity and lasting impacts for the island.

Rene Henkens (WUR) at press conference

RESEMBID is a 48–project progamme funded by the European Union and implemented by Expertise France – the development cooperation agency of the Government of France and supports sustainable human development efforts in 12 Caribbean Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs) – Aruba, Anguilla, Bonaire, British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Barthélemy, Sint Maarten and Turks and Caicos.

What’s the problem

According to WWF Fund for Nature’s Living Planet Report 2022, thebiodiversity loss by region is declining far greater across Latin America and the Caribbean than any other region. A 94% decrease of biodiversity was seen between 1970 and 2018. The 5th and 6th national reports of the Netherlands for the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 2014, 2019) also reported a disturbing message on the condition of the marine environment in the Dutch Caribbean with the conservation status being insufficient with no measurable positive change. A TEEB–study (2018) for Aruba concluded that the ongoing degradation of its marine environment will eventually not only suppress its small but valuable local fishery sector but also reduce tourist numbers and ultimately overall welfare by 50%. More recent studies conclude the same (CBA2020, Oduber 2020, Alberts 2021). Therefore, it is crucial to turn the tide towards a healthy and resilient marine environment where human uses are in harmony with nature.

How do we solve the problem?

To start solving this problem on a national level it is important that it is recognized in the Aruban policy notes and plans. The seriousness ofunsustainable development and the loss of ecosystem services is reflected in the Nature and Environment policy note 2018–2021, the Economic Policy 2019–2021, the National Strategic Plan 2020–2022 and the SDG Roadmap.

In addition, Aruba enacted the Parke Marino Aruba managed by FundacionParke Nacional Aruba in 2018. Aruba is currently in the process of designating an even larger area of its marine coastal areas as protected wetlands under the Ramsar Convention, thereby supported by local NGOs and partner Wageningen Environmental Research (WENR). Fundacion Parke Nacional Aruba is in the process of finalizing its Marine Management Plan for implementation which is put together using valuable input from over 60 different local stakeholders. All the activities carried out under the currentproject will take place in designated nature areas managed by FPNA. Lastly,the on–going “Turning the Tide” project is expected to tackle the lack of human capacity and financial resources by implementing a long–term sustained joint field implementation project which will continue far after the finalization of the project in April 2024.

What does the project entail?

“Turning the Tide” is expected to contribute to the restoration and conservation of a healthy and resilient coastal marine environment for Aruba, in which native marine biodiversity thrives, while its ecosystem services contribute to the welfare of future generations on the island. The EUR713Kfund that has been allocated for the execution of this project will cover: 

Coral Reef Restoration: Aruba’s coral ecosystem has entered a double negative spiral. Due to the disappearance of the stony and branching corals, the three–dimensional structure has disappeared. This leads to an increased vulnerability to erosion, causing even more coral loss and loss of clean hard substrate for coral settlement. In addition, the decline in stony corals causes that the function of shelter and nursery for key herbivorous species such as fish and sea urchins disappear due to the lack of suitable shelter. Grazing herbivorous species are extremely important for the health of corals in Aruba because they prevent overgrowth of the corals by algae. The pilot project will focus on active interventions by placing artificial reefs across 3 different seabed locations located within the Parke Marino Aruba. The artificial reefs will recreate the three–dimensional structure. With these structures in place, key herbivorous species can be restored over time, macroalgae can be grazed more intensively, and new coral can re–establish on the reef. To kick–start the settling of corals on the artificial structures, the project will actively plant coral fragments onto the reefs (Elkhorn and Staghorn corals).

Mangrove Forest Restoration: Aruba’s mangrove forests have also seen a negative spiral caused by sedimentation. This causes reduction in water depthand surface area which in turn causes mortality of mangroves and destroys its fish nursery function. With the pilot project, construction of sediment traps will reduce the influx of sediments, while the reopening of mangrove channels will enhance the flow of clean water, thereby enhancing mangrove ecological rehabilitation. Spaans Lagoen is one of the target sites for mangrove restoration under current project. The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) concerning the (silted) mangroves in Spaans Lagoen and the management recommendations will serve as the starting point for the excavations of trapped sediment at this site. The reopening of channels will focus on the thick mangrove forest of Isla di Oro for its nursery function directly adjacent to the sea.

Awareness Building: “Turning the Tide” aims to raise awareness about the conservation status of, and trends in the marine habitats and ecosystem services. In addition, it aims to communicate how these can be restored and what the impact would be on the local community. Above all, the desired impact is to raise awareness of the fact that a healthy marine habitat not only is essential for biodiversity, but also for the local economy and welfare.

Turning the Tide and Parke Marino Aruba

MPA Sero Colorado. Photo credit: FPNA

Parke Marino Aruba is managed by Fundacion Parke Nacional Aruba and consists of four Marine Protected Areas (MPA), namely MPA Arikok, Sero Colorado, Mangel Halto and Oranjestad. The marine protected areas host valuable biodiversity, including many nativespecies, almost all of the island’s mangroves, patches of seagrass beds, coral reefs, reef islets for tern breeding, and nursery and feeding habitats for dolphins, turtles and sharks.

Over the past year, FPNA has been working on its Marine Management Plan which is expected to be implemented later this year. Stakeholder inputcollected during the “SWOT Analysis” workshop in 2021 and the most recent “Zoning and Regulations” workshop has been crucial in the planning of thispilot project. As a result of the workshops, stakeholder input identified six conservation targets that will be the focus for Parke Marino Aruba, with Coral Ecosystem, Reef Fish and Mangrove Ecosystem as top priorities – all of which are focus points within the “Turning the Tide” project. The stakeholder inputwill also contribute to the selection of the most suitable sites for the placement of the artificial reef structures.

The development of the “Turning the Tide” project will be shared externally throughout the 15–month project duration and will end with the publication of a short documentary. For more information visit RESEMBID.

ORANJESTAD, ARUBA – Fundación Parke Nacional Aruba (FPNA) in samenwerking met Wageningen University & Research, ScubbleBubbles en de Universiteit van Aruba kondigen met trots de lancering aan van “Turning the Tide”, een proefproject gericht op hands-on herstel van Aruba’s ruimtelijk verbonden koraalriffen en mangroven. Dit project van 15 maanden wordt medegefinancierd door RESEMBID en Wageningen University & Research met een toegewezen fonds van EUR 713.000 voor dit project om het tij van aantasting van het milieu en verlies aan biodiversiteit te helpen keren naar een gezond en veerkrachtig mariene milieu voor Aruba. Tijdens de uitvoering en na voltooiing wordt dit project geïntegreerd in het beheer van Parke Marino Aruba om continuïteit en blijvende effecten voor het eiland te garanderen.

Rene Henkens (WUR) op persconferentie

RESEMBID is een programma van 48 projecten, gefinancierd door de Europese Unie en uitgevoerd door Expertise France – het agentschap voor ontwikkelingssamenwerking van de Franse regering en ondersteunt inspanningen voor duurzame menselijke ontwikkeling in 12 Caribische overzeese landen en gebieden (LGO) – Aruba, Anguilla, Bonaire, de Britse Maagdeneilanden, de Kaaimaneilanden, Curaçao, Montserrat, Saba, Sint Eustatius, Saint Barthélemy, Sint Maarten en Turks- en Caicoseilanden.

Wat is het probleem

Volgens het WWF Fund for Nature’s Living Planet Report 2022 neemt het verlies aan biodiversiteit per regio veel sterker af in Latijns-Amerika en het Caribisch gebied dan in welke andere regio dan ook. Tussen 1970 en 2018 was er een afname van de biodiversiteit met 94%. Ook de 5e en 6e nationale rapporten van Nederland voor de Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 2014, 2019) brachten een verontrustend bericht over de toestand van het mariene milieu in Caribisch Nederland waarbij de staat van instandhouding onvoldoende is zonder meetbare positieve verandering. Een TEEB-studie (2018) voor Aruba concludeerde dat de voortdurende achteruitgang van het mariene milieu uiteindelijk niet alleen de kleine maar waardevolle lokale visserijsector zal onderdrukken, maar ook het aantal toeristen en uiteindelijk het algehele welzijn met 50% zal verminderen. Meer recente studies concluderen hetzelfde (CBA2020, Oduber 2020, Alberts 2021). Daarom is het cruciaal om het tij te keren naar een gezond en veerkrachtig mariene milieu waar menselijk gebruik in harmonie is met de natuur.

Hoe lossen we het probleem op?

Om een begin te maken met het oplossen van dit probleem op nationaal niveau is het van belang dat het wordt erkend in de Arubaanse beleidsnota’s en plannen. De ernst van niet-duurzame ontwikkeling en het verlies van ecosysteemdiensten komt terug in de Beleidsnota Natuur en Milieu 2018-2021, het Economisch Beleid 2019-2021, het Nationaal Strategisch Plan 2020-2022 en de SDG-routekaart.

Daarnaast heeft Aruba in 2018 het Parke Marino Aruba uitgevaardigd, beheerd door Fundacion Parke Nacional Aruba. Aruba is momenteel bezig een nog groter deel van zijn mariene kustgebieden aan te wijzen als beschermd wetland onder de Ramsar-conventie, daarbij ondersteund door lokale ngo’s en partnerorganisaties. Wageningen Milieuonderzoek (WENR). Fundacion Parke Nacional Aruba is bezig met de afronding van haar Marine Management Plan voor implementatie, dat is samengesteld met behulp van waardevolle input van meer dan 60 verschillende lokale belanghebbenden. Alle activiteiten die in het kader van het huidige project worden uitgevoerd, vinden plaats in door FPNA beheerde aangewezen natuurgebieden. Ten slotte wordt verwacht dat het lopende “Turning the Tide”-project het gebrek aan menselijke capaciteit en financiële middelen zal aanpakken door de uitvoering van een langdurig duurzaam gezamenlijk veldimplementatieproject dat zal worden voortgezet tot ver na de afronding van het project in april 2024.

Wat houdt het project in?

“Turning the Tide” zal naar verwachting bijdragen aan het herstel en behoud van een gezond en veerkrachtig mariene kustmilieu voor Aruba, waarin de inheemse mariene biodiversiteit gedijt, terwijl de ecosysteemdiensten bijdragen aan het welzijn van toekomstige generaties op het eiland. Het fonds van 713.000 euro dat is toegewezen voor de uitvoering van dit project, zal het volgende dekken:

Herstel van koraalriffen: het koraalecosysteem van Aruba is in een dubbele negatieve spiraal terechtgekomen. Door het verdwijnen van de steenachtige en vertakkende koralen is de driedimensionale structuur verdwenen. Dit leidt tot een verhoogde kwetsbaarheid voor erosie, wat nog meer koraalverlies en verlies van schoon hard substraat voor koraalzetting veroorzaakt. Daarnaast zorgt de achteruitgang van steenkoralen ervoor dat de functie van schuilplaats en kraamkamer voor belangrijke plantenetende soorten zoals vissen en zee-egels verdwijnt door het ontbreken van geschikte beschutting. Grazende plantenetende soorten zijn uitermate belangrijk voor de gezondheid van koralen op Aruba omdat ze overgroei van de koralen door algen voorkomen. Het proefproject zal zich richten op actieve interventies door kunstmatige riffen te plaatsen op 3 verschillende zeebodemlocaties in het Parke Marino Aruba. De kunstmatige riffen zullen de driedimensionale structuur nabootsen. Als deze structuren aanwezig zijn, kunnen belangrijke plantenetende soorten na verloop van tijd worden hersteld, kunnen macroalgen intensiever worden begraasd en kan nieuw koraal zich op het rif herstellen. Om de vestiging van koralen op de kunstmatige structuren een duwtje in de rug te geven, zal het project actief koraalfragmenten (Elkhorn- en Staghorn-koralen) planten op de riffen.

Herstel van mangrovebossen: de mangrovebossen van Aruba hebben ook een negatieve spiraal doorgemaakt, veroorzaakt door sedimentatie. Dit veroorzaakt een vermindering van de waterdiepte en het oppervlak, wat op zijn beurt de sterfte van mangroven veroorzaakt en de viskwekerijfunctie vernietigt. Met het proefproject zal de bouw van sedimentvallen de instroom van sedimenten verminderen, terwijl de heropening van mangrovekanalen de stroom van schoon water zal verbeteren, waardoor het ecologisch herstel van de mangrove wordt bevorderd. Spaans Lagoen is een van de doellocaties voor mangroveherstel in het kader van het huidige project. Het Milieueffectrapport (MER) betreffende de (verzande) mangroven in Spaans Lagoen en de beheeradviezen zullen als uitgangspunt dienen voor het ontgraven van ingesloten sediment op deze locatie. De heropening van kanalen zal zich concentreren op het dichte mangrovebos van Isla di Oro vanwege zijn kinderkamerfunctie direct grenzend aan de zee.

Bewustzijnsopbouw: “Turning the Tide” heeft tot doel het bewustzijn te vergroten over de staat van instandhouding van en trends in de mariene leefgebieden en ecosysteemdiensten. Daarnaast wil het communiceren hoe deze kunnen worden hersteld en wat de impact zou zijn op de lokale gemeenschap. De gewenste impact is vooral om het bewustzijn te vergroten dat een gezond mariene leefgebied niet alleen essentieel is voor de biodiversiteit, maar ook voor de lokale economie en het welzijn.

“Turning the Tide” en Parke Marino Aruba

MPA Sero Colorado. Foto: FPNA

Parke Marino Aruba wordt beheerd door Fundacion Parke Nacional Aruba en bestaat uit vier Marine Protected Areas (MPA), namelijk MPA Arikok, Sero Colorado, Mangel Halto en Oranjestad. De beschermde mariene gebieden herbergen een waardevolle biodiversiteit, waaronder veel inheemse soorten, bijna alle mangroven van het eiland, stukjes zeegras, koraalriffen, rifeilandjes voor het fokken van sterns, en kraam- en eetgebieden voor dolfijnen, schildpadden en haaien.

Het afgelopen jaar heeft FPNA gewerkt aan haar Marine Management Plan, dat naar verwachting later dit jaar zal worden geïmplementeerd. De input van belanghebbenden verzameld tijdens de workshop “SWOT-analysis” in 2021 en de meest recente workshop “Bestemming en Regelgeving” is cruciaal geweest bij de planning van dit proefproject. Als resultaat van de workshops identificeerde de input van belanghebbenden zes instandhoudingsdoelen die de focus zullen zijn voor Parke Marino Aruba, met Coral Ecosystem, Reef Fish en Mangrove Ecosystem als topprioriteiten – die allemaal focuspunten zijn binnen het project “Turning the Tide” . De inbreng van belanghebbenden zal ook bijdragen aan de selectie van de meest geschikte locaties voor de plaatsing van de kunstmatige rifstructuren.

De ontwikkeling van het project “Turning the Tide” zal gedurende de projectduur van 15 maanden extern worden gedeeld en zal eindigen met de publicatie van een korte documentaire. Ga voor meer informatie over RESEMBID naar www.resembid.org.

Published in BioNews 64

Abstract

Prey resources in oligotrophic tropical marine environments are often scattered and unpredictable. Tracking studies of tropical seabirds can provide critical information about ocean habitat affinities, prey choice and the utilisation of surrounding areas, which can be useful for conservation managers. Foraging studies of Red-billed Tropicbird populations in the Caribbean are scarce but increasing. We sought to expand on this by tracking chick-rearing adults using GPS devices and subsequently linking these tracking data to remotely-sensed environmental variables. We related our spatial data to opportunistic sampling of regurgitates in a globally significant nesting colony on Saba, Caribbean Netherlands. Diet samples were dominated by flying fish (Exocoetidae; numerical frequency: 70.73%), but prey items from the squid family (Loliginidae; 9.76%) and the families of flying gurnards (Dactylopteridae; 2.44%) and the rayfinned fish (Carangidae; 2.44%) were also identified, although we were unable to identify 14.63% of samples due to digestion. An additional goal of our study was to compare the foraging ecology of Tropicbirds on Saba with those nesting on St. Eustatius, located circa 25 km south-east. As expected, Tropicbirds nesting on Saba exhibited diurnal foraging patterns, travelling a maximum distance from the colony of 553.7 km, with an average trip length of 117.2 ± 144.6 km (±SD). Adults foraged in shallower, cooler waters with higher chlorophyll a concentrations and higher Exocoetidae species richness compared to travelling points. Despite the proximity of Saba and St. Eustatius, this is contrary to what was found for Tropicbirds nesting on St. Eustatius, where adults foraged in deeper waters with a low Exocoetidae species richness. However, Tropicbirds from Saba and St. Eustatius did exhibit some similarities in their foraging behaviour; specifically, foraging adults traversed multiple exclusive economic zones and marine protected areas, reinforcing our recommendation for nature managers in the Caribbean to create a transboundary network in order to effectively protect and conserve this species.

Investigating the foraging patterns of tropical seabirds can provide important information about their ocean habitat affinities as well as prey choice. Foraging studies of Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus populations in the Caribbean are lacking. We sought to rectify this by opportunistically sampling regurgitates at nest sites on the island of St. Eustatius, Lesser Antilles, and by linking the GPS tracks of foraging adults to remotely sensed environmental variables. Diet samples were dominated by Exocoetidae (59.5%) and Belonidae (14.9%), although we were unable to identify 25.5% of samples due to digestion. Tropicbirds nesting on St. Eustatius exhibited diurnal foraging patterns, foraged in deeper waters with higher chlorophyll concentration, and consumed fewer Exocoetidae species compared to travelling behaviour. The maximum distance travelled from the colony was 953.7 km, with an average trip length of 176.8 (± 249.8) km. The biologged birds crossed multiple exclusive economic zones and marine protected areas, and on that basis, we suggest that efforts to protect and conserve this species may require transboundary collaboration throughout the wider Caribbean.

Investigating the foraging patterns of tropical seabirds can provide important information about their ocean habitat affinities as well as prey choice. Foraging studies of Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus populations in the Caribbean are lacking. We sought to rectify this by opportunistically sampling regurgitates at nest sites on the island of St. Eustatius, Lesser Antilles, and by linking the GPS tracks of foraging adults to remotely sensed environmental variables. Diet samples were dominated by Exocoetidae (59.5%) and Belonidae (14.9%), although we were unable to identify 25.5% of samples due to digestion. Tropicbirds nesting on St. Eustatius exhibited diurnal foraging patterns, foraged in deeper waters with higher chlorophyll concentration, and consumed fewer Exocoetidae species compared to travelling behaviour. The maximum distance travelled from the colony was 953.7 km, with an average trip length of 176.8 (± 249.8) km. The biologged birds crossed multiple exclusive economic zones and marine protected areas, and on that basis, we suggest that efforts to protect and conserve this species may require transboundary collaboration throughout the wider Caribbean.

Video documentary describing the importance of the Saba Bank as a natural resource for the island of Saba, including underwater footage and interviews with fishermen and managers.

ABSTRACT: Effectiveness of a marine protected area (MPA) in supporting fisheries productivity depends upon replenishment patterns, both in supplying recruits to surrounding fished areas and having a sustainable spawning stock in the MPA. Surveys for queen conch Strombus gigas were made in 2011 at 2 locations in the Exuma Cays, The Bahamas, for direct comparison with surveys conducted during the early 1990s at Warderick Wells (WW) near the center of the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (ECLSP) and at a fished site near Lee Stocking Island (LSI). There was no change in adult conch density and abundance in the shallow bank environment at LSI where numbers were already low in 1991, but numbers declined 91% in the deeper shelf waters. At WW, the adult population declined 69% on the bank and 6% on the island shelf. Unlike observations made in the 1990s, queen conch reproductive behavior near LSI is now rare. Average age of adult conch (indicated by shell thickness) at LSI decreased significantly during the 20 yr period between surveys, while average age increased at WW and juvenile abundance decreased. These results show that the LSI population is being overfished and the WW population is senescing because of low recruitment. In 2011, the ECLSP continued to be an important source of larvae for down- stream populations because of abundant spawners in the shelf environment. However, it is clear that the reserve is not self-sustaining for queen conch, and sustainable fishing in the Exuma Cays will depend upon a network of MPAs along with other management measures to reduce fishing mortality. 

Virtually all marine conservation planning and management models in place or proposed have in common the need for improved scientific rigour in identifying and characterising the marine habitats encompassed. An emerging central theme in the last few years has been the concept of representativeness, or representative systems of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). The habitat classification and mapping needed to incorporate considerations of representativeness into MPA planning must logically be carried out at the same scale at which management occurs. Management of highly protected areas occurs almost exclusively at local scales or finer, independent of the reservation model or philosophy employed.

Moreton Bay, on Australia’s east coast, was selected for studies at the local scale to map and classify macrobenthic habitats. In a site scale (1 km) trial for the major habitat classification study, remote underwater videography was used to map and characterise an unusual assemblage of epibenthic invertebrates on soft sediments. The assemblage included congregations of the comatulid crinoid Zygometra cf. Z. microdiscus (Bell) at densities up to 0.88 individuals.m-2, comparable to those found in coral reef habitats. There was no correlation between the distribution of this species and commonly used abiotic surrogates depth (6 – 18 m), sediment composition and residual current. This site scale trial is the first quantitative assessment of crinoid density and distribution in shallow water soft-sediment environments. The high densities found are significant in terms of the generally accepted picture of shallow-water crinoids as essentially reefal fauna. The findings highlight the conservation benefits of an inclusive approach to marine habitat survey and mapping. Assemblages such as the one described, although they may be of scientific and ecological significance, would have been overlooked by common approaches to marine conservation planning which emphasise highly productive or aesthetically appealing habitats.

Most habitat mapping studies rely solely or in part on abiotic surrogates for patterns of biodiversity. The utility of abiotic variables in predicting biological distributions at the local scale (10 km) was tested. Habitat classifications of the same set of 41 sites based on 6 abiotic variables and abundances of 89 taxa and bioturbation indicators were compared using correlation, regression and ordination analyses. The concepts of false homogeneity and false heterogeneity were defined to describe types of errors associated with using abiotic surrogates to construct habitat maps. The best prediction by abiotic surrogates explained less than 30% of the pattern of biological similarity. Errors of false homogeneity were between 20 and 62%, depending on the methods of estimation. Predictive capability of abiotic surrogates at the taxon level was poor, with only 6% of taxon / surrogate correlations significant. These results have implications for the widespread use of abiotic surrogates in marine habitat mapping to plan for, or assess, representation in Marine Protected Areas. Abiotic factors did not discriminate sufficiently between different soft bottom communities to be a reliable basis for mapping.

Habitat mapping for the design of Marine Protected Areas is critically affected by the scale of the source information. The relationship between biological similarity of macrobenthos and the distance between sites was investigated at both site and local scales, and for separate biotic groups. There was a significant negative correlation between similarity and distance, in that sites further apart were less similar than sites close together. The relationship, although significant, was quite weak at the site scale.

Rank correlograms showed that similarity was high at scales of 10 km or less, and declined markedly with increasing distance. There was evidence of patchiness in the distributions of some biotic groups, especially seagrass and anthozoans, at scales less than 16 km. In other biotic groups there was an essentially monotonic decline in similarity with distance. The spatial agglomeration approach to habitat mapping was valid in the study area. Site spacing of less than 10 km was necessary to capture important components of biological similarity. Site spacing of less than 2.5 km did not appear to be warranted.

Macrobenthic habitat types were classified and mapped at 78 sites spaced 5 km apart. The area mapped was about 2,400 km2 and extended from estuarine shallow subtidal waters to offshore areas to the 50 m isobath. Nine habitat types were recognised, with only one on hard substrate. The habitat mapping characterised several habitat types not previously described in the area and located deepwater algal and soft coral reefs not previously reported. Seagrass beds were encountered in several locations where their occurrence was either unknown or had not previously been quantified. The representation of the derived habitat types within an existing marine protected area was assessed. Only two habitat types were represented in highly protected zones, with less than 3% of each included The study represents the most spatially comprehensive survey of epibenthos undertaken in Moreton Bay, with over 40,000 m2 surveyed. Derived habitat maps provide a robust basis for inclusion of representative examples of all habitat types in marine protected area planning in and adjacent to Moreton Bay. The utility of video data to conduct a low-cost habitat survey over a comparatively large area was also demonstrated. The method used has potentially wide application for the survey and design of marine protected areas. 

Quantifying the probability of larval exchange among marine populations is key to predicting local population dynamics and optimizing networks of marine protected areas. The pattern of connectivity among populations can be described by the measure- ment of a dispersal kernel. However, a statistically robust, empirical dispersal kernel has been lacking for any marine species. Here, we use genetic parentage analysis to quantify a dispersal kernel for the reef fish Elacatinus lori, demonstrating that dispersal declines exponen- tially with distance. The spatial scale of dispersal is an order of mag- nitude less than previous estimates—the median dispersal distance is just 1.7 km and no dispersal events exceed 16.4 km despite intensive sampling out to 30 km from source. Overlaid on this strong pattern is subtle spatial variation, but neither pelagic larval duration nor direc- tion is associated with the probability of successful dispersal. Given the strong relationship between distance and dispersal, we show that distance-driven logistic models have strong power to predict dispersal probabilities. Moreover, connectivity matrices generated from these models are congruent with empirical estimates of spatial genetic structure, suggesting that the pattern of dispersal we uncovered re- flects long-term patterns of gene flow. These results challenge as- sumptions regarding the spatial scale and presumed predictors of marine population connectivity. We conclude that if marine reserve networks aim to connect whole communities of fishes and conserve biodiversity broadly, then reserves that are close in space (<10 km) will accommodate those members of the community that are short- distance dispersers. 

Quantification of the benefits humans obtain from Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) supports decision-makers by elucidating the link between the functioning of MPAs and human welfare. By conducting a residential household survey among residents in the Cayman Islands, this study assesses people’s willingness to pay for the marine environment from a perspective of cultural and recreational values. In this way the study offers a partial estimation of the total economic value of the marine environment of the Cayman Islands. Two valuation methods are applied: the contingent valuation and the choice modelling method.

Data from 384 household surveys shows that 63% of the respondents are willing to pay for additional management of the marine environment. The average amount that respondents are willing to pay per month for an improvement in a marine protection area ranges between is 12.69 CI$ and 16.55 CI$. The Cayman Islands has approximately 24,165 households, resulting in a range of the total yearly cultural and recreational value of the marine environment of between 3.7 million – 4.8 million CI$ for its residents.

The choice experiment shows that respondents especially value coral reefs and water quality as marine elements. Moreover, households who participate in fishing on average express a higher value for all attributes of marine environment covered in the experiment. The study also shows that residents from Cayman Brac value fish catch significantly more than the other sister islands and that no-take zones are less valued by older residents and people born on the Cayman Islands.

The conclusions from our study concerning public support for expansion of the MPA diverge the findings of an earlier study. While Richardson et al. (2013) concludes that levels of support range from 14% to 47% between the sister islands, our study measured much higher levels of public support ranging between 58% to 85%. Whilst Richardson et al. (2013) used public consultation, geared towards assessing people’s opinions on the intended expansion, the statement within this study was part of a larger survey and a simplification of the proposed changes presented during the public consultation. However, besides the simplification, within this study people might have been primed by previous questions in the survey, which may have led to respondents realizing what trade-offs need to be made in marine conservation.

Finally, this research reveals the presence of an anchoring/ordering effect in the valuation process. Showing respondents the choice experiment first is associated with a higher fraction of the respondents being willing to pay in the contingent valuation, and to respondents being willing to pay more in the contingent valuation, compared to respondents that were shown the contingent valuation question first.