Marine

Abstract:

There are about 25 fishermen on the island of St. Eustatius. Considering the small scale island economy this is a significant social economical factor that can not be overseen by the local Island Government. The money that is generated by the fishery sector, directly and indirectly, is invested back into the St. Eustatius economy, since all the fishermen are locals. In addition indirect taxes are generated from fuel, two stroke oil, fishing gear, spare parts and engines. The aggregated value of the fishery sector is also an important factor to the island economy. The spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) fishery is without doubt the most important fishery on the island. The total lobster catch for 2003 is estimated to be approximately 4 tons, which represents a gross value of 100,000 NAf.

The St. Eustatius fishermen primarily fish on the narrow shelf surrounding the island. In 1996 the Island Council of St. Eustatius approved the Marine Park Ordinance 1996, creating a marine park and setting out regulations (diving, fishing etc.) for this marine park. Subsequently the St. Eustatius National Park Foundation (STENAPA) was requested to manage the park and active management started in 1997. STENAPA therefore has the effective control over the island shelf from the high water mark to the 30 meter (100 ft) depth contour. In addition, 2 marine park reserves were put in place to be managed by the STENAPA foundation, where fishing is restricted to hand line fishing. Furthermore the fishermen were restricted to catching a maximum of 20 queen conch (Strombus gigas) per year in the marine park area, without any base line study had taken place. The St.Eustatius fishermen find that the best fishing grounds were designated to be marine reserves, and after several quite severe incidents that took place over the years between them and STENAPA fishers have become distrustful of the local Island Government’s actions and STENAPA. In addition, it is the fishermen’s experience that catches have gone down significantly since STENAPA took over management of the park area. An other factor that has even worsened the situation is that tankers, coming and going to the St. Eustatius oil terminal, are anchoring in the marine park area (within the 30 meter depth contour), and are destroying the fishing grounds with their anchor and anchor chain, and cutting away the traps. The fishermen find that the habitat destruction by the oil tankers is much more severe than their “relatively small” violations of the marine park ordinance. Since the management of the marine park and thus the fishing grounds is a STENAPA matter, a critical success factor for sustainable management of the park area, and consequently the fishing grounds, is improving the communication and cooperation between the STENAPA foundation, the fishermen and local island Government, and finding a solution for the anchoring problem. 

Findings:

The main conclusion from this study is that the combined levels of anthropogenic impact on the bay currently exceed sustainable levels. Lac Bay is experiencing a long-term decline in productive habitat area all the while non-sustainable grazing of vegetation, eutrophication, seagrass trampling and high levels of litter contamination have been documented.

Lac catchment area

• The Lac catchment area was mapped using satellite imagery combined with field verification and gave a preliminary estimated size of about 22.6 km2 of surrounding lands. This area consists of a mix of semi- natural deciduous and dry-evergreen vegetation types and at least 213 small part-time farms.
• There are at least 52 dams that obstruct or retard water flow and many wells from which groundwater can be or is being extracted.
• Extensive livestock husbandry (goat and sheep) occurs at densities higher than 1 animal per hectare. Such densities well exceed densities that permit ecological recovery (0.1 animal per hectare).

Recreational use

• The Lac lagoon is intensively used for recreation. From 9 in the morning to 4:30 pm practically every day anywhere from 100 - 400 people are present on or along the shorelines of the bay at any given moment. Highest numbers occur during cruise ship days.
• The majority of recreational use of Lac is concentrated on and around the Sorobon Peninsula.
• The major recreational activities at Lac are sunbathing, windsurfing and swimming or wading. Little current use is directed towards nature activities
• Usage patterns and awareness differ importantly between the four different user-categories of cruise tourists, stay-over tourists, foreign residents and inhabitants born on Bonaire.

Anthropogenic impacts

• The inner borders of the seagrass exclosures display much bare space due to trampling.
• As there is no sewage treatment and as the available toilets and cesspits are generally defunct, beach visitation definitely result in nutrient enrichment in the waters of the bay
• Beach litter contamination is a matter of concern along mangrove shores at entrance of the bay and the lagoon-bottom immediately off the public beach of Sorobon.
• High levels of uses pose issues of disturbance for birds and sea turtles.
• Additional problems are the rapid invasion of the exotic seagrass, Halophila stipulacea and a bloom of an encrusting (possibly invasive) calcareous alga (Ramicrusta sp.) that is smothering live corals at the seaward side of the bay.

Management Recommendations:

• Develop sunbathing and water sport possibilities elsewhere on Bonaire to distribute user densities away from Lac.
• Upgrade user facilities and infrastructure at Lac. These include toilets and septic system, garbage disposal, organized parking, shade, signage and markers for the various management zones.
• Implement a Visitor Centre to provide visitor service (products and added value-information) and enforcement.
• Reduce grazer densities in the watershed and/or around the bay.
• Discourage/prohibit the use of throw-away food and beverage packaging at Lac and participate actively in the regional Marine Litter Action Plan developed by UNEP.
• Design a boom system to herd and trap contaminants entering Lac before they penetrate the mangrove fringes.
• Organize regular beach clean-ups in Lac.

Research to address knowledge gaps

• Further map and quantify anthropogenic effects in the watershed area (pollution, water diversion and extraction, forestation, grazing, farming, erosion) and their effects on Lac (in terms of sedimentation, reduced freshwater influx, nutrient loading).
• Document traffic levels on Kaminda di Sorobon and its effects in terms of disturbance, road-kills and littering.
• Study the concentration and effects of litter-derived contaminants on the environment and biota of the bay.
• Study the distribution and habitat selection of sea turtles in the bay as related to diet, food availability, water temperature, disturbance and other factors.
• Study the use of more and/or larger exclosures to improve seagrass coverage in the Sorobon area.

We compared catches of settlement-stage reef fishes in light traps attached to underwater speakers playing reef sounds with those of silent traps during a summer recruitment season at Lizard Island, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Of the total 40191 reef fishes we collected, significantly more (67%; Wilcoxon and Binomial tests: p< 0.001) appeared in the traps with broadcast reef noise. Traps deployed with speakers consistently caught a greater diversity of species (Wilcoxon test: p< 0.001, total 81 vs 68) than did silent traps. This study provides a clear demonstration that the settlement-stages of a broad range of families of coral reef fishes are attracted to reef sounds

Abstract:

Based on the goals set forth in the Dutch Biodiversity Policy Programme, The Netherlands has a traditionally strong commitment to protect biodiversity and marine mammals both internationally and in its own national and Kingdom waters. Last year the responsible ministry, namely the Netherlands Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (EL&I), developed a management plan for the biological resources of the recently declared Dutch Caribbean Exclusive Economic Zone. The Dutch Caribbean EEZ was formally declared on June 10, 2010, and amounts to more than 90,000 km2 of diverse tropical marine habitats. One of the key ambition coming forth from that plan was to develop a Dutch Caribbean Marine Mammal Sanctuary (MMS). This report provides the necessary review and background on which to base such an endeavour.

Our updated review establishes beyond doubt that the Dutch Caribbean EEZ has a rich and diverse marine mammal fauna which merits more extensive protection. Even though the fauna is only poorly known, based almost exclusively on incidental sightings and strandings, it amounts to a minimum of 19 marine mammal species, and possibly up to more than 30. Without exception, all documented species appear on protected species lists of one or more treaties ratified by the Kingdom, and/or its constituent countries. Large differences are apparent between the leeward and windward sectors of the Dutch Caribbean EEZ, both in terms of species composition and conservation issues. Throughout the region, cetaceans are playing an increasingly important role in island economies as an important natural attraction for eco-based recreation and tourism, and in this respect the Dutch Caribbean also possesses major potential.

We here propose the establishment of a MMS as the cornerstone to sustainable conservation and management of these charismatic animals. Ecological arguments for the establishment of habitat protection by means of the concept of sanctuaries are outlined, as are the many environmental issues that would eventually need to be addressed within the sanctuary.

Favourable pre-conditions for the establishment of a MMS in the Dutch Caribbean include the fact that

• a) all cetaceans are already have a legal status in the Dutch Caribbean EEZ which calls for actual protection,
• b) the most deleterious fishing practices are already significantly limited and controlled within Kingdom waters,
• c) the key enforcer, namely the Coastguard, is already strongly present (largely due to other reasons),
• d) the islands generally have a strong tradition of marine protected areas in coastal habitat,
• e) the incremental costs for research and enforcement needed to establish a sanctuary is modest,
• f) public support is high, thanks to the generally high level of development and awareness of the public,
• g) indigenous fishery practices do not conflict with cetacean conservation, and
• h) whale watching interests are only in their infancy.

Steps to establish a Marine Mammal Sanctuary (MMS) should include:

• Legal designation of the sanctuary is the first and most important step that provides the framework for all broader (international cooperation) and in-depth (knowledge and conservation development) initiatives.
• Once established, the fuller implementation of an MMS should be seen as a gradual process, involving development of knowledge, policy, rules and regulations, as well as public and stakeholder participation

Management Recommendations:

The following key action points are proposed to establish a Marine Mammal Sanctuary:

• a) Legal designation of the EEZ (one or both sectors) as MMS, along with establishment of legal guidelines for interacting with cetaceans (whale watching).
• b) Establish bonds of cooperation with sister sanctuaries in the region (France, USA, Dominican Republic), (e.g. regional stranding and sightings data network).
• c) Conduct baseline quantitative surveys of cetacean distribution and assessments in light of sources of deleterious sound sources and risks of vessel strikes.
• d) Review and adapt existing national and insular legal frameworks to improve these, preferably by developing separate and standardized marine mammals legislation.
• e) Develop information systems to promote the development of a whale (cetacean) watching industry.
• f) Train and equip marine parks and island veterinarians to conduct elementary autopsies and collect basic stranding specimens for analysis of causes of mortality, contamination levels and genetics, and link them to international academic institutions who will accept and analyse the specimens in regional context.
• g) Develop species action plans (e.g. humpback).
• h) Conduct cetacean surveys and management reviews every 5 years to assess marine mammal status and conservation progress.

Abstract
With the transition of the islands of Bonaire, St. Eustatius and Saba (BES) from the former Netherlands Antilles to special municipalities of the Netherlands on the 10th of October 2010, the Netherlands gained a significant amount of biodiversity. The Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (EL&I) has gained an important new area of responsibility in terms of nature policy and management. Ecological monitoring can assist in directing management action and conservation of natural areas. It is essential that biodiversity on the BES-islands is monitored, particularly as it is threatened by a large array of natural and human factors. Aside from the national responsibilities that the Kingdom of the Netherlands holds for monitoring nature and biodiversity in these special municipalities, the Netherlands also has international obligations stemming from their participation and membership in global and regional environmental treaties.
 
This report aims to establish a foundation and define several priority action points for setting up a structural biodiversity monitoring system on the BES-islands, by investigating and contrasting the development, character and organization of biodiversity monitoring in the Netherlands with that of the BES-islands. This research was conducted using purely qualitative research methods; a literature review was conducted, various interviews were conducted in the Netherlands, surveys were distributed amongst actors involved in monitoring on the BES-islands, web-based research was used, and personal communication with a former representative of the Netherlands Antilles Central Government Department of Nature and the Environment as well as advice from two experts from Wageningen Institute for Marine Resources and Ecosystem Studies complemented the research.
The researched shows that if the Kingdom of the Netherlands wants to be able to provide complete national and international reporting on biodiversity and nature policy, additional monitoring is required on the BES-islands. Nature monitoring in the Netherlands has existed for more than 10 years for both the terrestrial and marine environment, is very well organised and steered by government demand. Though there are already biodiversity monitoring activities taking place on the islands and there have been several attempts to coordinate monitoring efforts on the BES-islands, monitoring activities are not organised and the necessary foundation for a structural monitoring system is still lacking. Thus, we are faced with a situation where there is quite a lot of data in existence but no infrastructure in place to organise structural terrestrial and marine biodiversity monitoring. Based on the conclusions it is recommendable to set up a monitoring network with all current parties involved in biodiversity monitoring in order to establish agreements on monitoring priorities and information sharing. In addition to this, a data storage and management system must be set up with someone responsible for data maintenance and reporting. A last vital action point is to define monitoring priorities based on the information available in this report and optimize monitoring methods.

Management of many species is currently based on an inadequate under- standing of their population dynamics. Lack of age-specific demographic information. particularly for long-lived iteroparous species. has impeded development of useful models. We use a Lefkovitch stage class matrix model. based on a preliminary life table developed by Frazer (1983a), to point to interim management measures and to identify those data most critical to refining our knowledge about the population dynamics of threatened log- gerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Population projections are used to examine the sen- sitivity of Frazer's life table to variations in parameter estimates as well as the likely response of the population to various management alternatives. Current management practices appear to be focused on the least responsive life stage. eggs on nesting-beaches. Alternative protection efforts for juvenile loggerheads. such as using turtle excluder devices (TEDs). may be far more effective. 

The marine exotic species of the Dutch Caribbean are less well-known than its terrestrial exotics. So far, only 27 known or suspected marine exotic species, some of which are also invasive are documented for one or more islands of the Dutch Caribbean. Four of these were documented only once or were only present for a certain period of time and are no longer present. Six of the species are marine epidemic diseases. As very little is known about these diseases, they might actually be native, but based on the literature and their ecological signature we regard them as special cases of invasive species.

In addition to these documented species, 76 other exotic species that have already been observed elsewhere in the Caribbean may already be present or can be expected to arrive in the Dutch Caribbean in the near future. The marine communities of the Dutch Caribbean have suffered major changes based on a handful of marine exotic and/or invasive species, particularly in the special case of (opportunistic) pathogens. In certain cases experience shows that after decades, the affected systems/species may show slow signs of recovery from initial impacts (e.g. the green turtle fibropapillomas), while in other cases the impact may be long-lasting and recovery doubtful (e.g. sea fan mortality).

Compared to terrestrial exotic species, eradication and control have been proven difficult or impossible for marine exotics. Therefore, management practices aimed at controlling unwanted species introductions should focus on preventing the arrival of such species by ships-- that transport exotics in their ballast water or as fouling communities on their hulls-- and (accidental) introductions from aquaculture or the aquarium trade. Busy harbors can be expected to be the areas where most marine exotics likely establish first.

Because of dispersal of marine exotics is facilitated by ocean currents, local approaches to prevent their arrival or reduce their numbers will be less effective compared to similar efforts for terrestrial species. In the case of marine exotics and invasives, it is paramount that prevention, control and management efforts should be regionally integrated. We conclude this report by listing a number recommendations on how to develop effective management approaches with which to address the impacts and risks associated with marine exotic species.

This research is part of the Wageningen University BO research program (BO-11-011.05-004) and has been financed by the Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (EL&I) under project number 4308202004.

Abstract:

The aim of this study was to draft a generic ecological assessment framework for coastal systems in Caribbean Netherlands (CN) that offers guidance in the process of license-applications of planned activities that could impact coastal systems, as well as a general guidance towards environmental and ecological monitoring related to proposed projects and existing activities. The study was limited to the review of (inter)national ecological assessment frameworks and monitoring initiatives; peer-reviewed academic literature was not consulted. Though this draft framework provides guidance, it limits itself to standard practice and general regulations. Further fine-tuning of the framework is required to be applicable to the specific situation in CN. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the individual initiators to customize an adequate and comprehensive ecological impact assessment and monitoring-plan adjusted to the spatial and temporal scale relevant of the type of activities and possible impact resulting from the project.

Fundamental to the draft framework is a network approach in which the impact chain between the activity and ecosystem components is specified by a suit of pressures. The broad strategy of the ecological assessment framework consists of three major phases:

1. Establishing the context in which the project will take place.
2. Scoping of the project activities, their pressures and the environmental descriptors relevant to the projected area.
3. Assessment and evaluation of the pressures on the environmental descriptors.

For each phase practical guidance is provided in the form of questions. While answering these questions an overview is established of all relevant activities, pressures, and environmental descriptors. Each phase is further elaborated upon in the report. An adaptive and interactive management approach is required for the processes of the three phases. Informative environmental descriptors groups were identified based on international monitoring initiatives (Benthic diversity, Coral health, Species requiring special attention, Fish diversity, Chemical water quality, Physical structure) and for each descriptor indicators are proposed. Further study is required into which indicators are most appropriate for CN.

Threshold levels are not commonly available for each of the environmental descriptors. Significance testing in the absence of threshold levels is discussed in de report. A practical guidance is proposed to evaluate and categorize the significance of an impact by listing questions related to the nature, magnitude and intensity of the (expected) impacts. Reference is made to relevant (inter) national treaties or ordinances in which qualitative goals are reported.

This report provides practical guidance and considerations on how to establish appropriate reference situations in a changing environment. The reference situations must be chosen using best available information about the physical and biological characteristics of the environment to ensure that they represent suitable reference conditions. Important factors to consider are summed up in this report. A well set-up monitoring design should include multiple reference sites (spread across space and time) to allow the authorities and the initiator to tease apart natural variability and general trends in decline (e.g. due to climate change) from changes caused by the initiated project.

The proposed framework has not yet been tested with pilot situations or cross-referenced with the legal framework in CN, nor has it been evaluated with stakeholders. It is highly recommended to evaluate this framework by applying it to pilot or actual cases, and to adapt were necessary. 

Abstract:

To protect deep-sea biodiversity, the United Nations have adopted a number of resolutions that should protect vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs), such as cold water corals and sponges, by the regulation of deep-sea fisheries on the high seas. In a parallel process, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) calls upon states to identify Ecological and Biological Significant Areas (EBSAs) that serve as focal areas, without any special legal status, and establish a network of marine protected areas by 2012. In addition, at the tenth meeting of the Conference to the Parties of the CBD in Nagoya, in 2010, it was agreed that by 2020, 10% of coastal and marine areas should be protected.

The Netherlands is involved in both processes since our country has ratified the CBD and therefore is bound to contribute to the protection of biodiversity, both in its national waters and in the high seas. In this report we provide a worldwide overview on the protection of VMEs and of the status of the EBSA selection processes as per March 2012. Next, we zoom in on three areas that are of interest to the Dutch government (Caribbean, West Africa, Antarctica) and we summarize the spatial protection measures, list the closed VME areas and EBSA selection processes and we provide information on the regional seas conventions and their mandates.