Marine

The invasion of lionfish in the Caribbean is causing grave concern because of its deleterious impacts on coral reef food-webs. We have used an Ecopath-with-Ecosim model to predict the impacts of lionfish invasion on a coral reef community based on pre-invasion fish community data. Forty-six groups were defined, and an initial Ecopath model was balanced with a near-zero biomass of lionfish. In Ecosim, the near-zero biomass was eradicated by applying a very high fishing pressure in the first year of simulation. We subsequently (re-)introduced lionfish with a very low biomass, and allowed them to increase to very high abundance. With a near-zero lionfish biomass, the great majority of mesocarnivorous/omnivorous coral reef fish were predicted to be dominant while sharks were predicted to be the apex predators. Different management scenarios were established in the ecosystem to explore the eradication and resilience of lionfish. The management scenarios showed that if all adult lionfish were exploitable it will in theory be possible to fish the lionfish to a very low level, but the fishing pressure will have to be maintained, or the lionfish will recover. If the largest individuals are unexploitable it will be much more difficult to control the lionfish population

Ocean acidification (OA) refers to the ongoing decline in oceanic pH resulting from the uptake of atmospheric CO2. Mounting experimental evidence suggests that OA will have negative consequences for a variety of marine organisms. Whereas the effect of OA on the calcification of adult reef corals is increasingly well documented, effects on early life history stages are largely unknown. Coral recruitment, which necessitates successful fertilization, larval settlement, and postsettlement growth and survivorship, is critical to the persistence and resilience of coral reefs. To determine whether OA threatens successful sexual recruitment of reef-building corals, we tested fertilization, settlement, and postsettlement growth of Acropora palmata at pCO2 levels that represent average ambient conditions during coral spawning (∼400 μatm) and the range of pCO2 increases that are expected to occur in this century [∼560 μatm (mid-CO2) and ∼800 μatm (high-CO2)]. Fertilization, settlement, and growth were all negatively impacted by increasing pCO2, and impairment of fertilization was exacerbated at lower sperm concentrations. The cumulative impact of OA on fertilization and settlement success is an estimated 52% and 73% reduction in the number of larval settlers on the reef under pCO2 conditions projected for the middle and the end of this century, respectively. Additional declines of 39% (mid-CO2) and 50% (high-CO2) were observed in postsettlement linear extension rates relative to controls. These results suggest that OA has the potential to impact multiple, sequential early life history stages, thereby severely compromising sexual recruitment and the ability of coral reefs to recover from disturbance

1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2. CBD Implementation in EU Overseas Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.1 CBD Commitments and Compliance an the EU Overseas Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.2 Biodiversity Planning in the Overseas Entities, Status and Responsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2.3 Main Actions Implemented. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.4 Main Results Obtained. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3. Collaboration and Linkages in Support of CBD and Nbsap Implementation in the EU Overseas Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.1 Between the Overseas Entities and the CBD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.2 Between the Overseas Entities and Institutions in the EU Member States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.3 Between and Among Overseas Entities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.4 Between the Overseas Entities and Their Geographic Regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.5 Between the Overseas Entities and the EU Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 3.6 Between Overseas Entities and Global Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 4. Critical Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.1 Constitutional and Institutional Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.2 Policy Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.3 Resource Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.4 Information and Knowledge Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4.5 Implementation Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 5. Principles to Guide Future Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 6. Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 6.1 Recommendations in Relation to EU Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 6.2 Recommendations to EU Member States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 6.3 Recommendations to Actors in ORs and OCTs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 6.4 Recommendations to Regional Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 6.5 Recommendations to the CBD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 6.6 Recommendations to Glispa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 6.7 Recommendations to IUCN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Abstract:

From July 19-26, 2010, a dedicated team of researchers completed transect surveys on 25 reefs located on the leeward side of Bonaire and the adjacent Klein Bonaire to characterize the current status, threats, and resilience of Bonaire’s reefs. The assessments focused on corals, fish, algae and motile invertebrates using belt transects, point intercept methods and photographic documentation, incorporating attributes of the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) protocol and the IUCN bleaching resilience protocol. The main purpose of this work was to 1) assess changes in reef structure and health since the last region-wide AGRRA assessments (1998-2000) and other surveys (2001, 2005) by Bruckner; 2) identify sites in excellent health, exhibiting a high biodiversity and cover of reef building corals and an intact fish communities; and 3) characterize the health and resilience of these reefs. The intent of this project was to provide critical information that can assist the Bonaire government and Bonaire Marine Park in the conservation and management of their precious resources.

Between 5-15 m depth, cover of living coral was high on all reefs (approximately 50%), with exception of a few sites impacted by white plague outbreaks and shallow areas scoured by strong waves during previous storms. Cover by fleshy macroalgae was generally low, as compared to reefs in other Caribbean localities, although some deeper sites did have high cover of Lobophora and Dictyota spp. (brown macroalgae), and cyanobacterial mats were prominent in several locations (especially on Klein Bonaire); these algae occasionally carpeted the margins of coral colonies and were competing with living corals. Montastraea annularis (complex) were the dominant corals, in terms of living cover, occupying approximately 20-25% of the benthos, and making up over 50% of the total live coral cover. Agaricia, Madracis and Porites spp. were the other dominant corals, in terms of living cover. M. annularis complex was also most abundant taxa (numbers of colonies) at all sites overall, and also the dominant taxa between 5-10 m depth, while Agaricia was slightly more abundant at 15 m depth. While the proportion (number of colonies) of brooding species (especially Agaricia, Porites) was very high, their contribution to living coral cover was less than M. annularis (complex) because most colonies were small in size.

Based on size structure, abundance, levels of recruitment, and coral condition, coral communities could be divided into two primary groups, the M. annularis complex (M. annularis, M. faveolata and M. franksi) and all other species. Corals lumped into “other species” were small to medium- sized (mean=24 cm), and population structure exhibited a monotonic decline in size; most colonies were < 20 cm in diameter and very few colonies were over 60 cm. Although a small proportion of colonies showed active signs of disease and competition from other biotic stressors, these corals had low levels of partial mortality (8%), few completely dead colonies were observed (0.4%), and they were the predominant species colonizing dead skeletal surfaces of other corals as well as reef substrates.

The original size of M. annularis (complex) colonies was significantly larger (58 cm diameter) than all other species, although many had been reduced in size due to partial mortality and skeletal surfaces of colonies often contained numerous smaller tissue remnants. These corals were being affected to the greatest degree by coral diseases (white plague, yellow band disease, black band disease, dark spots disease) and other biotic stressors, including competition and overgrowth by sponges, encrusting gorgonians, hydrozoan corals and a tunicate, predation by snails and parrotfish, and damselfish algal lawns. Colonies of M. annularis (complex) were missing on average 30% of their tissue, although the largest corals (mean size =61 cm; about 50% of all colonies) exhibited significantly higher amounts of partial mortality (mean loss=50%) than smaller (mean=41 cm) corals (mean tissue loss=11%). The extent of partial mortality, large numbers of completely dead colonies (4.5% of 1602 examined corals), ongoing stressors that continue to plague this taxa, and absence of colonies less than 10 cm in diameter (indicative of a lack of recruitment success) is of serious concern for these reefs, as these are the dominant frame-builders and characteristically the longest lived corals in the western Atlantic. The better overall health and high levels of recruitment observed in other taxa, in combination with recent declines in M. annularis complex, may indicate these reefs are undergoing a shift in species assemblages, with communities being replaced by smaller, shorter lived corals.

Fish communities on Bonaire were relatively high in diversity, with a dominance by herbivores (especially parrotfishes and damselfishes). Many species of important predatory fishes were present, including the dominant western Atlantic species of snapper, grouper, jacks and grunts, although these predatory fishes may be declining as the size structure was dominated by small and medium-sized fish. In particular, grouper over 30 cm total length were very rare. Large- sized groupers are the most important members of the family, as these species change sex (large individuals are females) and the larger fish produce an exponentially higher number of offspring.

In general, Bonaire’s reefs show signs of high resilience and a good ability to recover from acute disturbances. Reefs had high coral cover, low levels of disease, high levels of recruitment, and low amounts of fleshy macroalgae. There are minor problems that need to be addressed through management actions and conservation strategies. This could include 1) a program to eradicate lionfish before their numbers get out of control (these species were seen, but they appear to be rare as compared to other Caribbean Islands); 2) community-based efforts to remove an encrusting tunicate, coral-eating snails, and three-spot damselfish; 3) a nursery/restoration program to propagate A. cervicornis and A. palmata and reintroduce these corals into their former habitat; 4) steps to increase the abundance of herbivorous sea urchin (Diadema antillarum) populations; 5) elimination of fishing on herbivores (parrotfish caught along the shoreline using handlines) and top predators (groupers); and 6) better sewage treatment and other strategies to reduce run-off and nutrient input from hotels located along the coastline. 

Abstract:

In December 2012 IMARES conducted workshops on the identification of whales & dolphins in the Caribbean on the islands of Sint Maarten, Saba and Sint Eustatius. Apart from giving the workshops, on-going cetacean projects, future monitoring needs and possibilities for extending monitoring projects were discussed together with the staff of the marine parks, government representatives and other local stakeholders, as well as with international research groups active in the Caribbean.

This report gives an overview of the occurrence of cetaceans in Saba, Sint Eustatius and Sint Maarten and describes the results of the cetacean identification workshops and the considerations with the local stakeholders. It also provides examples of existing on-going monitoring projects and an overview of research approaches that could be implemented on a local scale, or on a larger (national and international) scale in the future.

Management Recommendations:

Define monitoring need
There is a strong need to define what kind of monitoring is needed for both the near-shore areas (e.g. marine parks) and offshore areas (e.g. EEZ, trans-boundary regions). The best type of monitoring depends on the scale (Marine parks vs EEZ vs Wider Caribbean), the aims (e.g. long- term monitoring; estimation of abundance, biodiversity or distribution; risk assessment and conservation) and the available funding.

Coordinate and streamline current efforts
On a local scale cetacean monitoring has already started on the islands in different ways. The efforts range from the collection of any sightings made from land and water, to conducting effort related surveys in near shore waters. Some of these programs could be extended and coordinated between the islands. However, it is unlikely that the current staff would be able to do more than they are doing at the moment as they either need to have more staff or get long term assistance in the collection and analyses of the data.
A standardization of monitoring approaches between the different islands and the development and use of a common database would be helpful to allow the direct comparison of data. The new project idea to use handheld hydrophones on all three islands to monitor cetacean presence is a promising approach. However, close cooperation between local staff and IMARES and some long term funding is needed to ensure useful results will be obtained in the long run.

Extend monitoring efforts to a larger scale
Several people of the local staff of all three islands have been involved in the French AGOA surveys. This has provided them with more knowledge on cetaceans in the area, insights in data collection methodology and has also provided data for the Dutch Caribbean waters on the occurrence of cetaceans. The current protocols of the AGOA could be adapted and expanded to better fit the needs (to be defined) of monitoring cetaceans in Dutch Caribbean waters. A standard protocol for all areas could be a first step for a common database which could then be analysed on a regular basis. Following a similar survey protocol one could extend the AGOA survey in Dutch waters.
To obtain absolute abundance estimates of cetaceans in the EEZs of Saba and Sint Maarten, it is necessary to conduct designated surveys in the Dutch Caribbean waters using survey vessels or airplanes.

Risk assessment
In order to achieve an adequate conservation of the marine mammals in the Dutch Caribbean, information on species composition, distribution and abundance should be used for an assessment of the existing and potential threats to these cetaceans. 

This report is part of the Wageningen University BO research program (BO-11-011.05-005) and has been financed by the Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation (EZ) under project number 4308201083. 

Data on beach debris and tar contamination is provided for 21 natural beach sites in Bonaire, Southeastern Caribbean. Transects amounting to a combined length of 991 m were sampled March–May 2011 and a total of 8960 debris items were collected. Highest debris and tar contamination were found on the beaches of the windward east-coast of the island where geometric mean debris concentrations (± approx. 70% confidence limits) were 115 ± 58 items m-1 and 3408 ± 1704 g m-1 of beach front. These levels are high compared to data collected almost 20 years earlier on the nearby island of Curaçao. Tar contamination levels averaged 223 g m-1 on windward beaches. Contamination levels for leeward west-coast beaches were generally two orders of magnitude less than windward beaches.

Coral reefs worldwide are attracting increasing numbers of scuba divers, leading to growing concern about damage. There is now a need to manage diver behaviour closely, especially as many dive companies offer unlimited, unsupervised day and night diving from shore. We observed 353 divers in St. Lucia and noted all their contacts with the reef during entire dives to quantify rates of damage and seek ways of reducing it. Divers using a camera caused significantly more contacts with the reef than did those without cameras (mean 0.4 versus 0.1 contacts min-1), as did shore versus boat dives (mean 0.5 versus 0.2 contacts min-1) and night versus day dives (mean 1.0 versus 0.4 contacts min-1). We tested the effect of a one-sentence inclusion in a regular dive briefing given by local staff that asked divers to avoid touching the reef. We also examined the effect of dive leader intervention on rates of diver contact with the reef. Briefing alone had no effect on diver contact rates, or on the probability of a diver breaking living substrate. However, dive leader intervention when a diver was seen to touch the reef reduced mean contact rates from 0.3 to 0.1 contacts min-1 for both shore and boat dives, and from 0.2 to 0.1 contacts min-1 for boat dives. Given that briefings alone are insufficient to reduce diver damage, we suggest that divers need close supervision, and that dive leaders must manage diver behaviour in situ.

Abstract:

The Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment (AGRRA) sampling strategy is designed to collect both descriptive and quantitative information for a large number of reef vitality indicators over large spatial scales. AGRRA assessments conducted between 1998 and 2000 across a spectrum of western Atlantic reefs with different histories of disturbance, environmental conditions, and fishing pressure were examined to reveal means and variances for 15 indicators. Twenty surveys were compiled into a database containing a total of 302 benthic sites (249 deep, 53 shallow), 2,337 benthic transects, 14,000 quadrats, 22,553 stony corals. Seventeen surveys contained comparable fish data for a total of 247 fish sites (206 deep, 41 shallow), 2,488 fish transects, and 71,102 fishes. Shallow (≤ 5 m) reefs were dominated by A. palmata, a good proportion of which was standing dead, while deep (>5m) reefs were nearly always dominated by the Montastraea annularis species complex. Fish communities were dominated by acanthurids and scarids with seranids making up less than 1% of the fish seen on shallow reefs and 4% on deep reefs.

AGRRA benthic and fish indicators on deep reefs showed the highest variation at the smallest spatial scale (~<0.1 km), with recent mortality and macroalgal canopy height displaying the largest area and subregional scale (~1-100 km) variation. A mean live coral cover of 26% for the 20 survey areas was determined for the deep sites. Significant bleaching and disease-induced mortality of stony corals associated with the 1998 (El Niño-Southern Oscillation) ENSO event were most apparent in the western Caribbean and Bahamas subregions and the Montastraea annularis complex was the most heavily impacted.

The overall low number of sightings for larger-bodied groupers and snappers (~< 1/100 m2) as a whole suggest that the entire region is overfished for many of these more heavily targeted species. More remote reefs showed as much evidence of reef degradation as reefs more proximal to human coastal development. Characterizing present-day reef condition across the region is a complex problem since there are likely multiple sources of stress operating over several spatial and temporal scales. Not withstanding the many limitations of this analysis, the value of making multiple observations across multiple spatial scales that can approximate the “normal” state for the region today is still very high.