Human impacts

Seagrass beds are important habitats associated with coral reefs. Seagrasses are nursery areas for juvenile fish, and they act as buffering zones by dissipating wave energy (Kemp, 2000). In the proposed study, human related impacts on seagrass beds were studied. Many issues affect seagrass beds health, such as water quality decline due to pollution, water temperature rise due to global warming, dragging of fishing nets, dredging, and human recreational activities (Kemp, 2000). This study aimed to measure the potential effects of human recreational activities on the seagrass beds in Sorobon on Lac Bay, Bonaire, an island of the Netherlands Antilles. In the first part of the study, the activities of windsurfers, swimmers, waders, kayakers, and others were monitored, and quantified. The intent was to determine which of these recreational activities may result in damage to seagrass beds in the study area. The second part of the study compared seagrass beds in areas exposed to high human activity to areas where human activities are less frequent, with the intent to assess the relation of health of the beds with high and low levels of human activities. The results of this study show that there is a relationship between human recreational activities and the health of seagrass beds. In areas of high human disturbances, both seagrass percent cover and number of leaves are lower than in areas of low human disturbance. This study also shows that not all human interactions interact with the seagrass habitat in the same amount; different recreational activities interact with the seagrasses in different amounts.

This student research was retrieved from Physis: Journal of Marine Science III (Spring 2008)19: 37-41 from CIEE Bonaire.

PROJECT SUMMARY

Project Goals:

1. Protect the seagrass beds at the shoreline of the Blue Zone
2. Increase windsurfer compliance to the White Zone no-go boundary
3. Reduce recreational user damage to the coral reef

Activities:

1. Floating lines and small floats were installed to protect the seagrass beds in the heavily-used areas at the Sorobon peninsula. 
2. Turnaround buoys were intended to be placed at the White Zone boundary. As the name implies, windsurfers must turn around at these markers. Commercial use is prohibited in the White Zone.
3. Six buoys were placed in the Yellow Zone beside the coral reef. Users are instructed to use caution in this area and reminded that the reef is a “no touch” zone. The buoys are also designated moorings for kayaks.
4. An information and awareness program informed users about the issue, the project and the related regulations. 

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNMENT POLICY

Immediate action:

• Install turnaround buoys to mark the border of the White and Blue zones.
• Contribute funding for ongoing expenses of this project (see 2010 Budget page 5).
• Take measures to reduce the impact of users:

1. Correct the footprints of the existing businesses which have encroached beyond their permitted limits.
2. Place capacity limits on number of beach chairs, restaurant seating, and number of sailboards rented per day.
3. Restrict foot traffic to designated paths to reduce damage to dune vegetation. o Make funds and personnel available to enforce user regulations, most critically during the cruise ship season.
4. Do not grant additional business permits for this area until maximum capacity limits have been determined.

• Take measures to reduce vehicle impact to Sorobon peninsula:

1. Create a designated parking lot and restrict all public/taxi/tour parking to that lot. Designate narrow driving lanes to reduce the number of cars, compaction of the soil and damage to vegetation.

Other action:

• Enact policy, regulation and enforcement, and devote adequate funds to manage Lac for the long term.
• Fund and implement the Lac Bay Management Plan (Renken 2003). At the same time, undertake a careful revision of the plan to encompass current conditions and scientific knowledge.
• As part of the above:

1. Adopt all recommended Ramsar guidelines.
2. Establish and enforce caps on day use-entry to the area.
3. Establish and levy a reasonable use fee for businesses (excluding traditional fishing) that use Lac. Dedicate proceeds exclusively for the protection and management of the area. 

We here provide a synoptic overview and preliminary update of the marine mammals of the Dutch Caribbean EEZ based on 279 cetacean sighting and stranding records. The Dutch Caribbean EEZ is composed of two distinct sectors. One is centered around the leeward Dutch islands of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao (71,000 km2) while the other is centered around the windward Dutch islands of Saba, St. Eustatius and St. Maarten (22,000 km2). The previous principal review (of cetaceans) dating from 1998, was based on only 70 records from the leeward sector and confirmed the occurrence of some 13 species for Dutch Kingdom waters. Now, with a 4-fold increase in number of records, 19 species can be documented for the Dutch Kingdom waters (18 species in the leeward sector and 8 species in the windward sector).

The windward sector stands out for its large number of humpback whale sightings (45% of records) and may form part of its former (or current) calving grounds. This species remains relatively rare in the leeward sector (5% of records) and continues to be targeted by aboriginal fishing in its destination wintering grounds to the east, where the relict breeding population is having difficulty to rebound. The species is of growing interest to tourism in the region and urgently needs full protection from all fishing in the southern Caribbean. The leeward EEZ sector further lies down-stream from seasonal upwelling areas off Venezuela that support the largest fishery of the Caribbean. This sector stands out for its high occurrence of beaked whales and the Bryde’s whale. Marine mammal strandings are much more common here (26% of records) than in the northern sector (3% of records). Human induced mortalities (first suggested in 1974) and disturbance due to coastal tourism and recreation are key and growing concerns in the southern Dutch EEZ sector.

The marine mammal fauna of the Dutch Caribbean is evidently rich and varied but continues to suffer man-induced mortality and disturbance. Several nations, including the USA, the Dominican Republic and France, have recently established marine mammal sanctuaries in Caribbean waters. The Netherlands should consider doing the same.

Findings

The main conclusion from this study is that no new fishing permits should be issued until a long-term fishery monitoring program is in place. The study emphasizes the need for effective enforcement of existing regulations.

Findings from the study include:

• 14 fishing vessels use the Saba Bank.
• Saba Bank fishermen engage in two types of fisheries: a spiny lobster fishery (most frequent), and a snapper fishery (least frequent).
• The total lobster catch amounts to about 90 tons per year and the total red snapper catch amounts to about 12 tons per year.
• A considerable number of traps are lost due to ship traffic and hurricanes. None of these traps are fitted with a biodegradable panel, so the lost traps pose a huge threat to the fish stock of the Saba Bank.
• In 1999, the Saba Bank fishery sector generated a gross economical value of 1.1 million US$.
• An important issue that came out of this study is that a substantial part of the landings of lobsters consist of illegal lobster catch. High percentages of under-sized lobsters and berried lobsters in the catch are a serious concern. A high percentage of lobsters landed are under the legal size limit and a substantial percentage of berried lobsters are landed. The mean CL (carapace length) of lobsters from the Saba Bank (10.7 cm) was set at this level so that future harvesting is not endangered as long as the legal size regulation is strictly enforced. 

Management Recommendations:

Fishery regulations must be strictly enforced for a successful management of the Saba Bank fishery:

(As a direct result of this catch assessment survey the Coast Guard of the Netherlands Antilles has commenced to strictly enforce the fishery regulations.) The following regulations are currently being enforced:

• Legal mesh size
• Use of the biodegradable panel
• Legal size limits for lobsters
• No landing of berried lobsters
• No landing of soft-shell lobsters (lobsters in ecdysis)
• Requirement of Fishing License for both Saban Territorial Waters and Economic Fishery Zone (EFZ) of the Netherlands Antilles.

The implementation of the fishery regulations by the Coast Guard of the Netherlands Antilles has resulted in a substantial decline in illegal fishery activities:

• The number of under-sized lobsters has decreased, and practically no berried lobsters and lobsters in ecdysis were brought in.
• Illegal (non-licensed) fishing activities from both foreign and domestic vessels have practically stopped.

Restrictions should be made on landing berried lobsters and lobsters in ecdysis, and on catch and effort through size limits (lobsters).

The total fishing effort for snappers should not be increased until more data is available (average length of the main snapper species of the Saba Bank is relatively small).

Further research and accurate catch and effort and length-frequency data are required to formulate sound regulations.

A communication network should be developed which involves fishermen, Central and Island Governments, the Coast Guard and the research community.

Both the Saba island Government and the Central Government need to strictly enforce the regulations concerning the legal mesh size and the biodegradable hatch for traps to reduce the amount of ghost traps on the Saba Bank.

The lobster fishery should not be expanded; there are already concerns that the fishing effort might have reached sustainable levels of exploitation.

Continued monitoring of the fishery is needed to show clear trends on the lobster fishery exploitation level.

The Central and/or Saba Island Government should ensure that data continues to be collected and interpreted.

Fishermen should be encouraged to exploit the resources of the Bank in a sustainable manner.

Both the Central Government and the Saba island Government should conform to the inspection procedures and standards required by the EC, so that fish products can once again be legally exported to the French islands.

It is recommended that both the Central Government and the Saba island Government specify the nature of the fishing licenses per target species. The resource users should pay a fee for these licenses according to regional standards. The income generated from the fishing licenses fee can be used for management and monitoring of the fishery, whereby the resource users contribute to the management and monitoring of the stock.

Abstract:

The St. Eustatius National Marine Park conducted an Economic Valuation of St. Eustatius’ coral reef ecosystems in the fall of 2009. This attempted to put a monetary estimate on the coral reefs surrounding Statia. Coral Reefs are one of the island’s most valuable resources; they provide a livelihood through dive tourism and fishery and provide protection from large, damaging waves caused by hurricanes. In order to properly manage the coral reef ecosystem, an economic valuation is a useful tool to determine what exactly the monetary value of a coral reef is. With an attached value, better management decisions can be made to adequately protect this most precious of resources.

In order to complete the study four questionnaires were distributed. Two dealt specifically with fisheries, one with hotel accommodations, and one with dive tourism. Data was also provided by the Statia Tourism Office. Coral reefs have direct and indirect influences on a wide range of economic factors, and the generation of data was crucial to the successful completion of this study. Data was inputted into a computer program created by the World Resource Institute and which was adjusted by STENAPA to reflect Statia’s unique ecological and economic situation.

The findings of this study have outlined that Statia’s coral reef resources provide important goods and services to the economy of the island. The revenue that the resource is able to generate through coral reef associated tourism and fishery is approximately USD $11,200,454. Although this number is high, and highlights the importance of coral reefs to the island, it also suggests that there is an increased need for conservation, so that the value does not diminish. It is therefore in the best interest of Statia to incoroporate environmental economic data to: (1) Enforce land-use and development regulations in the coastal zone, (2) Enforce strict usage of anchorage areas, (3) Incorporate economic valuation into EIAs, (4) Include economic impacts in assessing fines for damages to reefs from activities such as anchoring in the reserves, oil spills etc, (5) Weigh revenues from a growing tourism industry against long-term economic losses from environmental impacts, (6) Evaluate distributional effects (“winners” and “losers”) of proposed coastal development projects, (7) Invest in Scientific Research, (8) Increase support from the private and public sector in the Marine Park Management Authority, STENAPA. 

General description 

New observations indicating undesirable trends on Bonairean reefs 

Unusual high abundances of the colonial tunicate Trididemnum on Bonaire’s Northwestern reefs

 Population explosions of coral and gorgonian eating snails 

Overgrowth of deeper reefs by the brown alga Lobophora variegata 

Increased abundance of coral‐destroying territorial damselfish 

Unprecedented predation on native fish by the invasive red lionfish 

 Historic factors negatively affecting the “health” of Bonaire’s reefs 

Current situation 

Unknown stressors for Bonaire’s reefs 

Conclusions

A review of the introduced agricultural pests and animal and plant diseases and vectors for the Dutch Caribbean in which a total of 47 exotic pests, diseases, parasites and pathogens established on one or more of the Dutch Caribbean islands are listed and discussed. These include 2 species of voracious herbivorous snails, 7 species of millipedes, 8 species of invasive ants, and some 16 species of insects that infest plants. Most agricultural pests are not strongly host-specific and will typically also affect native plants and/or animals. This makes it very difficult to eradicate or control these species once established. Therefore, prevention and early eradication is key.

The most information on invasive alien pests is available for the leeward Dutch islands while the least is known for the windward Dutch islands. The principal means of entry is the importation of unsterilized soil and plant material through container shipment, import of ornamental plants and air traffic. The economic costs, both in terms of damages and control measures, as well as missed opportunities that these species cause, has not been estimated but certainly runs in the millions of dollars annually. By far the most economically costly invasive species is the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti, a pest and disease vector closely associated with man. In a few cases, biological control and eradication has been successful.

Introduction of invasive pest species continues at a high rate in the Dutch Caribbean and preventive measures are urgently needed to limit future costs and risks in terms of economy and health.

Key recommendations are: a) to strongly restrict and control importation of ornamental plants, most of which can be propagated locally without risk of new introductions, b) restrict importation of unsterilized foodstuffs, c) practice tighter control and prophylactic fumigation of container shipments, d) continue strict veterinary controls on animal importations. To effectively implement such measures, will require greater awareness, supporting legislation, cooperation of customs agents and shippers and the presence of a biosecurity unit authorized and equipped to act on short notice.

Based on experiences in other Caribbean countries and existing trade patterns and taking into account which species could survive in an arid climate, it is possible to draw up a preliminary listing of “Alert” species for the Dutch Caribbean. Such a listing is a critical tool for effective prevention. The preliminary Alert list discusses 21 species to be on the look-out for, most of which are insects and most of which can be expected to cause important damage to crops and/or nature, or both, if introduced.

The National Nature Policy Plan 2001-2005 (NPP-5) and its current status of implementation was assessed as a first step towards a new Nature Policy Plan for the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba, St. Eustatius). The purpose of this exercise is to determine which action points of NPP-5 are still relevant, and to identify key new developments to be aware of when setting goals and strategies for the new Nature Policy Plan for the Caribbean Netherlands. The NPP-5 was the first formal nature policy plan of the Netherlands Antilles. It lists a total of 47 policy goals and projects in the text for the period 2001-2005. Based on these, 61 action points were listed in an Action Matrix for the period 2001-2005. Of these 31 were achieved to a high degree of completion between 2001 and 2010, notwithstanding the serious and chronic lack of both funds and manpower (NEPP-7). Based on this assessment, a total of 40 action points may be brought forward based on the NPP-5. These not only include most “one-time” action points not yet achieved but also several action points that were achieved but which are of an on-going nature.

While much has been achieved in terms of policy development and legal frameworks over the last 10 years, climate change implies that future nature management will be confronted with an increasingly rapid succession of major ecological problems such as coral bleaching, hurricane impacts, and invading species.

Our quick-scan assessment showed that policy development over the last 10 years has suffered significantly from challenges in terms of both capacity and funding, as well as in decision-making in reaching its goals. Controversial topics regarding “rules and regulations”, “cooperation”, and “financial instruments” largely failed to be achieved due to problems in the decision making process, whereas less controversial action points such as “reporting”, drawing up “plans”, doing “research” and “education”, especially suffered from a lack of capacity and funding.

Several main topics are identified that will need attention in the new nature management plan. The new nature policy will have to meet standard and basic policy needs, information and management needs, and also have to accommodate the latest conceptual developments and the pressing realities of global climate change and alien species invasions. Notable is that a large number of new and serious threats have come to the forefront since the NPP-5 was set 10 years ago.

Because the diverse, colourful and unique natural ecosystems of the Caribbean Netherlands also represent the single most important local economic resource on which to build long-term prosperity of the inhabitants of these islands, the nature policy plan needs to be recognized as much more than simply a way to protect nature and avert ecological crisis. It is in fact a key policy tool by which to actively safeguard and create economic well-being and opportunity for these islands.

Overall conclusions Agriculture and fisheries are small sectors on St Eustatius. Nonetheless they represent important economic activities for the island, providing many people with an additional source of income. The level of these sectors is marginal but there is a good potential for development and innovation. Investing in improved agriculture and fisheries will diversify the sources of income on the island, create new perspectives for young people and increase the (business) contacts with the surrounding islands. Practically the marginal state of both sectors represents a risk. The agricultural sector (especially the vegetable sector) has innovators that inspire people to develop new initiatives. For these innovators it is difficult to survive in the present circumstances and the enabling environment is nearly absent. It will be crucial for the development of the agricultural sector that these innovators can continue their activities and improve their production. People who are inspired by the frontrunners will be discouraged and disconnect if these innovators would cease their commercial activities. It would strengthen the local scepticism that economically viable agricultural activities are not really possible on St Eustatius. This is in contrast to its potential. The fisheries sector is quite traditional and relatively small. It does not seen to have any active innovators. The enabling environment for development is largely absent. Local fishermen feel threatened in their existence even though new development opportunities are present. The lack of active innovators and present development in the sector discourages young people to become active in the sector. Improving the enabling environment will be crucial to professionalise the sector, create new perspectives and be attractive for the next generation. Intervening in the agricultural and fishery sector will also involve some risks. Top down approaches to create new developments generally do not work. It will be essential to provide a positive environment for local people to develop entrepreneurship and innovation. Local encouragement and support will be crucial. Accept that processes are slow. Life rhythm on St. Eustatius is slower that on the mainland. Improving agriculture and fishery on St. Eustatius will and should take its time. Accept that initiatives might go wrong. Improving the sectors means taking chances; for local people and for (investing) governments. Attempts to reduce the risks are valid only if they will not reduce the extent of the improved enabling environment. The classic response to a request for development is providing budgets. For St. Eustatius this aspect is crucial but not the only prerequisite. Professional guidance is essential. It will be essential not to focus only on the production side of agriculture and fisheries but to strengthen the marketing side of the chain from the start. An imbalance will have a strong negative impact.