Ecosystem Services

Thesis Report

Coastal lagoons are rich in biodiversity and offer various ecosystem services. The close relation to the terrestrial ecosystems causes coastal lagoons to be vulnerable to impacts that are caused by human activities on land. The state of the coastal lagoons and the impact of human activities, is unknown for the Wider Caribbean Region. This study analyzes nitrate (N), phosphate (P), heavy metals, sedimentation rate and diatoms to reconstruct the recent development of four coastal lagoons in the Caribbean. Diatoms are used as proxy as they quickly respond to changes in water quality. Using short sediment cores, for four lagoons human impact is assessed. The lagoons have varying degrees of impact, from high (Fresh Pond, Sint Maarten), to medium (Spanish Lagoon, Aruba; Santa Martha, Curacao) to low impact (Saliña Bartol, Bonaire). Surface sediment samples were collected from eleven additional sites to provide a spatial context. Expected was that 1) levels of N, P, and heavy metals increase with increased human impact, that 2) biodiversity increases with decreasing human impact, and that 3) diatoms are a valuable and useful proxy for reconstructing water quality and environmental conditions. Results of heavy metals and N and P impact show that indeed human impact is most strongly pronounced in the site that was selected as high impact site (Fresh Pond, Sint Maarten). The medium and low impact sites do not show clear signs of human impact. Furthermore, results show that there is no correlation between diatom diversity and P, Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), and Nickel (Ni) concentrations. Although the Zinc (Zn) concentrations seem negatively correlated with diatom diversity, this is mainly caused by the low diversity of diatoms in the ponds on Sint Maarten. Observed diatom diversity is influenced by dissolution of diatom valves. Poor diatom preservation can bias results. As alkalinity, salinity and morphology of diatoms can strongly influence preservation, these factors are analyzed. Data suggests that species that are morphologically robust are less susceptible to dissolution in hyper saline conditions. A comparison of diatom assemblage between modern and sediment surface samples show that differences in observed diatom assemblage are substantial.

Abstract

Large grazers (megaherbivores) have a profound impact on ecosystem functioning. However, how ecosystem multifunctionality is affected by changes in megaherbivore populations remains poorly understood. Understanding the total impact on ecosystem multifunctionality requires an integrative ecosystem approach, which is especially challenging to obtain in marine systems. We assessed the effects of experimentally simulated grazing intensity scenarios on ecosystem functions and multifunctionality in a tropical Caribbean seagrass ecosystem. As a model, we selected a key marine megaherbivore, the green turtle, whose ecological role is rapidly unfolding in numerous foraging areas where populations are recovering through conservation after centuries of decline, with an increase in recorded overgrazing episodes. To quantify the effects, we employed a novel integrated index of seagrass ecosystem multifunctionality based upon multiple, well-recognized measures of seagrass ecosystem functions that reflect ecosystem services. Experiments revealed that intermediate turtle grazing resulted in the highest rates of nutrient cycling and carbon storage, while sediment stabilization, decomposition rates, epifauna richness, and fish biomass are highest in the absence of turtle grazing. In contrast, intense grazing resulted in disproportionally large effects on ecosystem functions and a collapse of multifunctionality. These results imply that (i) the return of a megaherbivore can exert strong effects on coastal ecosystem functions and multifunctionality, (ii) conservation efforts that are skewed toward megaherbivores, but ignore their key drivers like predators or habitat, will likely result in overgrazing-induced loss of multifunctionality, and (iii) the multifunctionality index shows great potential as a quantitative tool to assess ecosystem performance. Considerable and rapid alterations in megaherbivore abundance (both through extinction and conservation) cause an imbalance in ecosystem functioning and substantially alter or even compromise ecosystem services that help to negate global change effects. An integrative ecosystem approach in environmental management is urgently required to protect and enhance ecosystem multifunctionality.

Abstract

Ecosystems are under pressure worldwide, due to both natural and anthropogenic stresses. Stresses on ecosystems can cause a decline in biodiversity, a loss of habitat and a deterioration in ecosystem services. To avoid further pressure on ecosystems caused by advancing economic development, new infrastructure projects should be integrated into the ecosystem. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are now mandatory for projects that are likely to have significant environmental effects. EIAs have primarily focused on mitigating negative impacts. However, recently new design philosophies have emerged such as ‘Engineering with Nature’, ‘Working with Nature’ and ‘Building with Nature’ which also focus on promoting positive impacts.

Constructively realizing nature-inclusive projects is complicated due to involving stakeholders with differing perspectives. Therefore, in an integrated approach towards new marine infrastructure development, the next step is to promote constructive collaboration between stakeholders to systematically investigate the nature-inclusive potential of infrastructure. This thesis describes a proposed strategy for doing so, within the context of nearshore infrastructure development located in or nearby coral ecosystems. The focus is on how nature-inclusive potential of new marine infrastructure might be maximised, taking into account the local ecosystem.

The aim of this research is to find an optimal approach to develop coral-inclusive infrastructure. This is done by structuring the required discussions between stakeholders considering socio-economic, ecological and engineering perspectives regarding the nature-inclusive design potential of new marine infrastructure. For this purpose, a method was developed that proposes a step-by-step strategy to promote constructive collaboration between relevant stakeholders, consisting of the following five steps:

1. project description, outlining the basic challenge at hand

2. project location analysis, involving a systematic assessment of the relevant ’natural system’ as well as the ’anthropogenic system’

3. Development of marine infrastructure design applications, involving an inventory of project elements that can have negative or positive effects on the overall ecosystem

4. inventory and ranking of potential measures, objectively outlining feasibility and potential effectiveness of measures and design modifications

5. summary of sustainable design recommendations, leading to a systematic ranking of potential measures proposed to support further decision making.

We have investigated the effectiveness of the systematic method, by applying it to a case study in Sint Eustatius that investigates whether the intended extension of a breakwater in Sint Eustatius can be designed as a coral-inclusive project. Sint Eustatius was chosen because Rijkswaterstaat offered research opportunities on location. In an ideal case, the use of long-term consistent data maps the natural factors over a longer period of time. This provides greater certainty of results and recommended actions. However, the values that were reported for the Sint Eustatius case were not derived from long term systematic data collection. Furthermore, the substrate from the existing breakwater looks to be promising for coral recruitment. However, there is not a lot of coral development evident on the existing breakwater. Possible negative factors hindering coral development on the existing breakwater are: 1) poor water quality; 2) high hydrodynamic circumstances with high wave action in shallow waters which limits the type of coral species; 3) inconsistent larval supply through ocean currents.

Coral reef connectivity seems sufficient and potential substrate is already present in the existing breakwater. Extension of the breakwater will lead to substrate increase which could improve the chance for coral recruitment in a hurricane-risk area as Sint Eustatius. A valid next step that could be proposed to aid a better understanding of this habitat is to invest in an extensive and dedicated data gathering campaign.

In conclusion, the main improvements derived from the application of the systematic approach for nature-inclusive potential for infrastructure projects are:

• providing an overview of the steps required to create coral-inclusive infrastructure,

• instigating the investigation of the status or the possibilities for coral development,

• assisting ecologists and engineers to structure the discussion on coral-inclusiveness,

• lowering the barrier to use (new) design philosophies,

• and stimulating coral development and decreasing negative effects by providing design recommendations.

Bringing stakeholders with different perspectives together in one nature-inclusive project plan remains challenging. Environmental data can play a role in arriving at a realistic approach supported by ecologists and civil engineers to realize nature-inclusivity for infrastructure. This requires knowledge, money and time and could provide insight into the threats and opportunities. The systematic approach, derived in this thesis, has been proven to support stakeholders in assessing the nature-inclusive potential of marine infrastructure.

NetBiome-CSA is a European funded project that aims to extend and strengthen research partnerships and cooperation for the smart and sustainable management of tropical and subtropical biodiversity in Outermost Regions (ORs) and Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs). The NetBiome Network, with the participation of Ecologic Institute, has developed a Strategic Document that compiles a series of policy and research priorities for improving knowledge about biodiversity and the practice of biodiversity governance in the EU ORs and OCTs. The priorities emerged from participatory processes within NetBiome-CSA. The document is available for download.

The 34 European Overseas entities, including nine Outermost Regions (ORs) and 25 Overseas Countries and Territories (OCTs), are among the most intriguing and important zones in the world for biodiversity conservation. The rich biodiversity of the European Overseas Territories has nurtured generations of local populations and communities, and is a pillar for their future economic development and crucial for their long term prosperity and sustainability. However, this exceptional biodiversity in ORs and OCTs is faced with severe threats as a result of unregulated human activities and the negative impact of climate change.

In the framework of the NetBiome-CSA project, a co-design process was developed and implemented in order to mobilize panels of experts and build bridges across geographic regions. Adopting a bottom-up approach and going beyond the expertise of the scientific community and policy makers, specific attention was given to ensure that the perceptions of civil society and private economic stakeholders, which are key players in the field of biodiversity management, were taken into account.

This exercise enabled the identification of four major research topics on biodiversity management:

• Improve tools for effective participation in biodiversity management, aiming to facilitate the co-design of management and the development of scenarios and solutions using the best available scientific and local knowledge whilst managing various uncertainty factors;
• Predict effects of climate change on natural resource uses, carrying out broadscale investigations that go beyond studies directed at specific regions or specific natural resources and develop regional strategies;
• Increase the consideration of biodiversity and ecosystem services in environmental assessment and valuation methods, taking them into account when designing legislation and undertaking infrastructure design and spatial planning processes;
• Map ecological limits to extractive activities, examining linkages across habitats and species to guide decisions on limits to activities.

Addressing these Research Priorities in a collaborative approach presents significant advantages, allowing scientific experimentation at various hierarchical scales (island, archipelago, oceanic region) thereby providing a better generalization of research results to give fundamental insights into mechanisms shaping biodiversity and ecosystem processes.

By adopting a transregional and collaborative approach to these challenges, new knowledge is expected to be acquired and used in the implementation of a set of Policy Recommendations identified in the course of the NetBiome-CSA consultation process:

• Adopt a more coherent approach to spatial planning, accounting for ecological and societal considerations, incorporating cross-sectorial and interdisciplinary cooperation to balance long-term biodiversity related issues and short-term social and economic dynamics and make decisions in a context of uncertainty;
• Adapt international legislation to national/regional context, to better address the challenges faced by European Overseas regions and territories with regard to biodiversity conservation and adaptation to climate change;
• Promote more efficient and sustainable usage of natural resources, enhancing local genetic diversity while meeting society’s needs and demands and facilitating a circular economy approach;
• Put ecosystem-based management principles into practice, adopting management approaches that take into consideration the full array of interactions within an ecosystem, including human activities;
• Establish Biodiversity Indicators specific for European Overseas Regions and Territories, since existing biodiversity indicators based on European policy models and funding strategies designed for continental contexts and needs, are very often inadequate, insufficient or too general.

These Policy Recommendations and Research Priorities can effectively address the common challenges identified that, if not tackled, would endanger biodiversity in the European ORs and OCTs and jeopardise their future. 

On the 21th and 22st of January 2015, a 2-day workshop was held on Curacao. The workshop was intended to build knowledge and share experiences between different stakeholders involved in policy, management and/or investments in nature conservation or from the private sector with regard to the economic valuation of nature on Curaçao. The workshop focussed on raising awareness about the mutual interdependency of nature and the economy as a result of socio-economic valuation studies and these studies provide a tool to mainstream nature management within all social, environmental and economic sectors on Curaçao. During the workshop the research steps for a total economic valuation (TEV) study for Curaçao were developed based on various practical exercises. In a TEV study, all the important ecosystems and ecosystem services are investigated.

“Increase the understanding about why a study on the socio-economic value of nature is useful for Curaçao, how to develop such an assessment, and which tools to use” The sub-objectives of the workshop were:

• Training on defining objectives, approaches and scope of economic valuation of ecosystem services based on The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)1 .
• Identify and discuss policy issues that should be addressed by a total ecosystem services valuation study.
• Training on the available ecosystem valuation methods and techniques.
• Present experience and knowledge on valuation of ecosystem goods and services studies, the actual influence on nature conservation, management, investments and policies in the Caribbean. Factors that enable the effectiveness of a valuation study will also be discussed.
• Discuss recommendations to implement and communicate the outcome of the potential study to the relevant decision-makers and actors in the private sector.

The idea is to have several theoretical sessions combined with interactive discussions and exercises. Working groups are assigned to develop cases based on identified policy questions to which economic valuation research on Curaçao can be applied. Finally, the participants identify approaches and a strategy to communicate expected results

The ecosystems of the island of Bonaire support a range of activities that depend on the quality of the natural environment. Tourism is one of these activities and it represents an important source of income for the local economy. Tourism in Bonaire can be divided in stay-over tourism and cruise tourism. Whether further development of cruise tourism is desirable for Bonaire is constantly under discussion. It is thought that more cruise tourists will contribute to economic growth. But, at the same time, there is a fear that an increase in the number of cruise tourists and the investments in infrastructure and other facilities to facilitate this growth will put extra pressure on the ecosystems. And these are the same ecosystems that are vital in attracting not only cruise tourists, but also stay-over tourists.

This study aims at providing quantitative and qualitative information on the potential benefits and negative effects of an expansion of the cruise tourism industry on Bonaire. For this purpose, a socio-economic valuation was first conducted to understand the cruise tourism industry in Bonaire. This resulted in insights that include tourist’s expenditures, the different actors on the island that benefit from these expenditures, the dependency of certain sectors on tourism related revenues and the attitude of tourists towards certain social and environmental changes in the island. This information is derived from tourist surveys, a business survey and literature review.

Second, with the information gathered, and making use of an economic Input-Output model for Bonaire that is linked to an ecologic model, three different cruise tourism growth scenarios were analysed: a baseline scenario, a moderate growth scenario and a rapid growth scenario. This analysis resulted in the calculation of economic benefits that would result from an increase in the number of cruise tourists in each scenario. At the same time, using the ecologic module that is linked to the economic Input-Output model, the socio-environmental impact on a number of natural indicators was also assessed. Certain environmental effects of cruise tourism, like waste production, water consumption and the ecologic footprint of cruise ships, could not be included in the ecologic module and were, therefore, assessed separately from the model.

The surveys conducted amongst tourists have shown the importance of maintaining a healthy reef and the tranquillity on the island. Especially stay-over tourists indicated that they are not willing to return to a more crowded island or an island with a degraded coral reef. Both the survey and the scenario analysis indicate that sectors that benefit the most from the growth of the cruise industry are the transport, restaurant, ‘other services’ (which include tour operators) and trade sectors.

The scenario analysis further indicates that an increase in cruise tourism will generate a growth in GDP within the period of the analysis (until 2024). While the economy grows as a whole, more jobs will be generated. However, given the seasonal character of cruise tourism and the sectors that benefit the most from it, most of the jobs created appear to be in lower income categories. As a result of potential population growth to fill in these new jobs, household consumption and GDP per capita do not increase as much as the GDP growth might suggest. Household consumption at the end of the analysis period (2024) is only $234 higher in the rapid growth scenario compared to the baseline scenario.

The economic growth caused by cruise tourism expansion also results in socio-environmental impacts, as higher number of visitors will increase direct pressures on the ecosystems that are visited. The main impacts that have been analysed are change in land use, decrease in coral cover, water consumption and waste generation and the potential decrease of stay-over tourists as a result of coral reef degradation and more built-up land.

However, not all potential socio-environmental impacts could be included in the scenario analysis. If cruise tourism industry is to expand even further, Bonaire must expand its infrastructure. This means that investments need to be made to accommodate larger amounts of tourists. The scenario analysis does not take into account the impact of these potential infrastructure projects like additional port infrastructure, proper waste management system, water management, more roads and more ground transportation. It was also not possible to assess the effects on the environment and the return rate of stay-over tourists caused by crowding in specific areas and on peak moments.

The results of the study demonstrate that there are external effects related to the expansion of cruise tourism. For example, a decrease in stay-over tourists as a result of rapid growth of the cruise tourism industry may have significant implications for the hotel industry. To make decisions regarding cruise tourism expansion, such external effects should be taken into account. Furthermore, investing on an environmental friendly expansion and the enforcement of environmental regulations will also be of high importance to avoid endangering the ecosystems and, thereby, the tourism industry as a whole. More research on the local impacts of cruise tourism and the effects on the stay-over sector are necessary to draw conclusions on the desirability of the expansion of cruise tourism for the island.

Natural ecosystems provide an attractive focus for tourism on small islands. However, at the same time tourism and other human actions can be detrimental to these ecosystems especially because governance of the ecosystem may be difficult due to the limited resilience of small island ecosystems. In this paper, we focus on the conditions under which self-governance will be the appropriate governance mechanism of ecosystem services on small islands. We apply Ostrom’s (2009) framework for common-pool resources in a socialecological system, and select the relevant indicators for small islands. We scored these indicators for three cases (environmental issues) in St. Eustatius, a Caribbean island under Dutch rule. These cases show that self-organization of ecosystem services is not an outcome easily achieved. The unevenly distributed benefits of potential measures are found to decrease community support of measures that could reinforce these ecosystem services.