Slijkerman, D.M.E.

Background

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty that was initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). It is ratified or accepted by 196 parties that are mostly countries. The Netherlands, but also the European Union are parties of the CBD. The CBD entered into force on 29 December 1993 and has 3 main objectives:

1. The conservation of biological diversity.

2. The sustainable use of the components of biological diversity.

3. The fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, was agreed at the tenth meeting of the CBD Conference of Parties (COP10) in Nagoya, Japan in 2010. The Strategic Plan includes five interdependent Strategic Goals and a set of 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets, most with an end-point of 2020. The strategic plan ultimately aimed at achieving a 2050 vision of a world where biodiversity is valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people.

The sixth national report is used by the Conference of the Parties to assess the status of implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. It will provide information for a global biodiversity outlook of progress towards the implementation of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and progress towards the Aichi Biodiversity Targets. The sixth national report guidelines request Parties to report on 1. national targets, 2. main measures, and 3. effectivity of these measures and 4. progress to achieve national targets and 5. progress to achieve the Aichi-Biodiversity targets.

Key messages

There has been significant and reasonable progress towards meeting the national targets. However, the 2020 deadline will not be reached. The path to sustainability and reaching the targets is long. The main measures are considered partly effective. The National Ecological Network, being the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation in the Netherlands is for instance still in progress until 2027, while environmental impacts, especially from agriculture are still a major concern.

Nevertheless, there has been significant progress towards meeting several components of the majority of Aichi Biodiversity Targets. Some target components, such as conserving at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water areas, have been met. However, in most cases this progress is insufficient to fully achieve the 2020 targets.

The Kingdom of The Netherlands also includes six islands within the Caribbean Islands Biodiversity Hotspot, with among others tropical rainforests, coral reefs and hundreds of endemic and threatened species. The islands ecosystems are fragile. Most habitats are small as are the species populations that depend on it, while the threats are high. Most Aichi targets are not on track due to local threats from a.o. free roaming grazing livestock, pollution, invasive species and overfishing. It makes the islands ecosystems less resilient to the major threat of climate change. The island economies are very much dependent on ecosystem services, like for the tourism and fishery sectors. Despite that, the actions to deal with these local threats (if any) are generally insufficient. This is illustrated by the fact that the development on five of the Aichi-targets shows a worsening trend, while no significant change can be observed for 50% of the targets at some of these islands.

National targets and main measures

In 2011 the EC adopted a strategy to halt the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in the EU by 2020. The Netherlands has committed itself to nature objectives from the European biodiversity strategy and consequently the Convention on Biological Diversity. The national targets are therefore based on the European targets and related to the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (appendix 2). The 6 main targets of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Europe are:

1. By 2020, the assessments of species and habitats protected by EU nature law show better conservation or a secure status for 100 % more habitats and 50 % more species.
2. By 2020, ecosystems and their services are maintained and enhanced by establishing green infrastructure and restoring at least 15 % of degraded ecosystems
3. By 2020, the conservation of species and habitats depending on or affected by agriculture and forestry, and the provision of their ecosystem services show measurable improvements
4. By 2015, fishing is sustainable. By 2020, fish stocks are healthy and European seas healthier. Fishing has no significant adverse impacts on species and ecosystems
5. By 2020, invasive alien species are identified, priority species controlled or eradicated, and pathways managed to prevent new invasive species from disrupting European biodiversity.
6. By 2020, the EU has stepped up its contribution to avert global biodiversity loss.

The 6 main measures of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in Europe are:

1. Create new habitat within the National Ecological Network (NEN) aiming for the development of

unfragmented viable species populations

1. The Nature Conservation Act, an important instrument to protect species and habitats
2. Subsidy for nature management measures important to maintain biodiversity
3. Programmatic Approach to Nitrogen (PAN)
4. Stimulating sustainable use of natural capital and mainstreaming nature for the benefit of

society and the economy

1. Utilising the self-organising ability of society by stimulating, facilitating and financially support

green initiatives.

In the last seven years the Dutch government decentralised responsibilities of realization and management of nature to the provinces. In 2013 ambitions towards 2027 were agreed upon in the so called Nature Pact between the national government and the provinces, including extension of the NEN, management of nature and environmental conditions, improving the system of nature management by farmers and more cross-sectoral strategies to integrate nature management with other spatial functions.

Main measures and there effectivity

The above six main measures are taken to achieve the six national targets. However, they are not directly related to one target but contribute to the achievement of several targets (appendix 2). A contribution to several targets at the same time is in theory contributing to the success of a measure. However, these interactions between measures and targets together with complex causal relations in ecology, made it difficult to assess whether measures taken have been effective. The results below show however that progress has been made and the measure is contributing to several targets. The targets however, are not met in 2020. The tools or means (indicators and monitoring) for assessing progress of national targets is described in appendix 3. The obstacles and scientific and technical needs related to the measure taken are described in appendix 4. Based on the results and indicators described below, the complex relations, the progress towards the targets and based on our expert knowledge, we conclude that the measures taken have been partially effective (table 1).

Highlights

• UV filters oxybenzone and octocrylene are detected at Lac Bay Bonaire.

• They are present at significant levels in both water column and surface microlayer.

• Predicted concentrations of oxybenzone are in line with measured concentrations.

• Risk assessment revealed environmental risk to Lac Bay's ecosystems.

Abstract

Although organic UV filters (OUVFs) benefit human health by preventing skin burns and cancer, several studies revealed that organic UV filters can induce developmental and reproductive toxicity to aquatic organisms. Discharge of OUVFs occurs predominantly at marine recreational hotspots, such as Lac Bay, Bonaire, and is predicted to increase significantly due to growing tourism worldwide. Unfortunately, there is no insight what the current and future discharge of OUVF at Lac Bay is. Therefore, this study aimed to 1) measure concentrations and estimate the risk of specific OUVFs to different nursery habitats at Lac Bay, and 2) compare measured and predicted concentration based risk assessment outcome. Results showed that at least one of the three nurseries at Lac Bay had a potential for adverse effects. Furthermore, predicted environmental concentrations of UV filter discharge can be applied to gain more insight in the order of extent of OUVF discharge by marine tourism.

In 2010 a petrochemical fire took place at the BOPEC oil terminals on Bonaire. These facilities are located on the shores of the Goto lake, a legally protected RAMSAR wetland and important flamingo foraging area. Before the fire, daily flamingo counts averaged approximately 400 birds that used the area to feed on Artemia (brine shrimp) and Ephydra (brine fly larvae). Immediately after the fire, flamingo densities plummeted to nearly none and have not recovered. A large amount of fire retardants were used to combat the fire, and were hypothesised to be a potential cause for the flamingo declines. Our analyses of 15 years of baseline flamingo monitoring data show that rainfall does influence flamingo densities but only on the short-term and steering seasonal dynamics of flamingos. Therefore the rainfall event/change in the rainfall regime cannot account for lasting absence of flamingos. Nearby control lakes that were not affected by the fire showed no lasting reduction in flamingo densities, but instead an increase due to the birds no longer feeding in Goto.

In 2012, we measured the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs, which includes PFOS) in Goto and control-lake waters and conducted additional chemical screening (fingerprinting) of sediments and biota. These measurements showed both lasting elevated levels of PFCs, in water, sediments and biota (fish) and lowered food-species concentrations in Goto as compared to control areas. Based on calculated Risk Quotients combined with the chronic exposure, for the documented PFOS levels, toxicological effects on benthic organisms such as Artemia and Ephydra are likely. Nevertheless additional impact by other associated retardant toxicant is also probable. Goto was found to be chemically different based on GC*GC chemical fingerprinting indicative of elevated Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) concentrations, a compound used in petrochemical industries as a solvent.

In conclusion, our results demonstrate a close link between the 2010 Bopec fires and the subsequent abandonment of the adjacent Goto lake by foraging flamingos. Compared to nearby control lakes, Goto was found to have elevated (and toxic) concentrations of PFCs and associated low food species concentrations. Therefore, our results suggest that the lasting abandonment of the lake by flamingos after the fire have been due to the drastically low food-species densities as likely caused by toxic ecosystem effects resulting from retardants released into the environment while combatting the fires. 

Researchers from the Wageningen Marine Research, under the leadership of water quality specialist and ecologist Dr. Diana Slijkerman, have been working on the question whether sun care products are an emerging risk for marine life in the Caribbean. More specifically, UV-filters in sunscreen, such as Oxybenzone, were subject of study since these were recently reported to be of serious concern for corals.

This news article was published in BioNews 2-2017.

BioNews is produced by the Dutch Caribbean Nature Alliance and funded by the Ministry of Economic Affairs.

Bonaire is considered to harbor some of the best remaining coral reefs of the Caribbean, but faces multiple pressures including eutrophication. We measured multiple water quality indicators twice annually, from November 2011 to May 2013, at 11 locations at the west coast of Bonaire. This study resulted in 834 data points. DIN concentrations ranged from below quantification to 2.69 μmol/l, phosphate from below quantification to 0.16 μmol/l, and chlorophyll-a from 0.02 to 0.42 μg/l. Several indicators showed signs of eutrophication, with spatial and temporal effects. At southern and urban locations threshold levels of nitrogen were exceeded. This can be a result of brine leaching into sea from salt works and outflow of sewage water. Chlorophyll-a showed an increase in time, and phosphorus seemed to show a similar trend. These eutrophication indicators are likely to exceed threshold levels in near future if the observed trend continues. This is a cause for concern and action.

doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.054

Abstract:

In 2010 a petrochemical fire took place at the BOPEC oil terminals on Bonaire. These facilities are located on the shores of the Goto lake, a legally protected RAMSAR wetland and important flamingo foraging area. Before the fire, daily flamingo counts averaged approximately 400 birds that used the area to feed on Artemia (brine shrimp) and Ephydra (brine fly larvae). Immediately after the fire, flamingo densities plummeted to nearly none and have not recovered. A large amount of fire retardants were used to combat the fire, and were hypothesised to be a potential cause for the flamingo declines. Our analyses of 15 years of baseline flamingo monitoring data show that rainfall does influence flamingo densities but only on the short-term and steering seasonal dynamics of flamingos. Therefore the rainfall event/change in the rainfall regime cannot account for lasting absence of flamingos. Nearby control lakes that were not affected by the fire showed no lasting reduction in flamingo densities, but instead an increase due to the birds no longer feeding in Goto.

In 2012, we measured the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs, which includes PFOS) in Goto and control-lake waters and conducted additional chemical screening (fingerprinting) of sediments and biota. These measurements showed both lasting elevated levels of PFCs, in water, sediments and biota (fish) and lowered food-species concentrations in Goto as compared to control areas. Based on calculated Risk Quotients combined with the chronic exposure, for the documented PFOS levels, toxicological effects on benthic organisms such as Artemia and Ephydra are likely. Nevertheless additional impact by other associated retardant toxicant is also probable. Goto was found to be chemically different based on GC*GC chemical fingerprinting indicative of elevated Butylated Hydroxytoluene (BHT) concentrations, a compound used in petrochemical industries as a solvent.

In conclusion, our results demonstrate a close link between the 2010 Bopec fires and the subsequent abandonment of the adjacent Goto lake by foraging flamingos. Compared to nearby control lakes, Goto was found to have elevated (and toxic) concentrations of PFCs and associated low food species concentrations. Therefore, our results suggest that the lasting abandonment of the lake by flamingos after the fire have been due to the drastically low food-species densities as likely caused by toxic ecosystem effects resulting from retardants released into the environment while combatting the fires. 

Approach:

Eutrophication is a common threat to the integrity of coral reefs as it can cause altered balance and integrity of the reef ecosystem. On the island Bonaire the former waste water treatment is limited which is a point of concern to the quality of the marine park. The reef of Bonaire faces nutrient input by various sources, of which enriched groundwater outflow from land is considered to be a substantial one. It is assumed that groundwater is enriched with nutrients e.g. due to leaking septic tanks.

In order to reduce the input of nutrients on the reef via enriched groundwater, a water treatment plant is being built on Bonaire. The treatment of sewage water is extended in 2012 with a sewage system covering the so called sensitive zone, the urbanised area from Hato to Punt Vierkant, including Kralendijk, the islands largest town. Based on the dimensions of the treatment plant and estimated connections to the plant, it is estimated that a total of 17.5 to 35 tonnes of nitrogen a year will be removed from the sensitive zone, and will not leach out to the sea. No estimates are known of the contribution of other sources to the total nitrogen load.

Limited information was available about concentrations of nutrients in the marine local environment and its eutrophic state. Therefore, Rijkswaterstaat asked IMARES to conduct a study on water quality aspects. The goal of this coastal monitoring study was to collect baseline water quality data to be able to study the impact of the water treatment plant in coming years. The following research questions are discussed based on the results:

• Are environmental safe threshold levels of water quality exceeded?
• Is temporal (over the years), or seasonal variation (November-May) of water quality observed?
• Does water quality vary among locations or regions in Bonaire?
• Based on experience and results, what are recommendations for future monitoring of water quality?

The study area was the west coast of Bonaire, and included 12 field locations. Water was sampled during early morning field trips at each location twice a year (May and November) starting November 2011 till May 2013. Indicators for water quality related to the nutrient status on the reef were selected and analyzed.

Based on their relevance to general water quality aspects and steering primary production, their relevance to the outflow of enriched (polluted) groundwater (and thus possible impact of the treatment plant in future) the following indicators were included:

• Inorganic nutrients
  • NO2, NO3, NH4, PO4
  • DIN (calculated based on NO2+ NO3+ NH4)
• Organic nutrients
  • Total nitrogen, ureum and total phosphorus
• General water parameters
• Chlorophyll-a
• Fecal bacteria

Concentrations were assessed against environmental threshold values from peer reviewed literature or (inter)national standards. If not available, outlying concentrations were highlighted taking the 80th percentile as a representative level.

Results and discussion

Water quality indicators measured at the west coast of Bonaire show signals of eutrophic conditions. Spatial and temporal variation in water quality is however observed. At some locations and certain moments environmental safe levels of nutrients are exceeded (see overview of data in Figure 1- Figure 4). Especially at locations in the south and in the sensitive zone concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus exceed the threshold levels. Southern locations are probably affected by the salt pans, and locations in the sensitive zone by outflow of sewage water.

Furthermore, an increase of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a is observed in the last 2 years, whereas nitrogen (DIN) decreases slightly over the years. However, despite the decrease of nitrogen, its threshold levels are exceeded at Red Slave, Tori’s reef, Angel City, 18th Palm, Cliff. Phosphorus and chlorophyll-a do not yet exceed environmental threshold levels, but if the increase continues, this might be relevant in near future.

The risk of higher nutrient levels is that algal growth can outcompete corals, and can change the structure of the ecosystem. Furthermore, increased levels of nutrients affect the coral reefs integrity due to decreased stability of the skeleton.

The increase of bioavailable phosphate alters the nutrient ratio (DIN:SRP ratio) and species composition can evolve from this change in relative nutrient availability. Relating these data with observations in benthic composition and chlorophyll-a trends is advised to support this hypothesis.

Fecal bacteria numbers exceed several standards for human health safety. High fecal bacteria numbers are more frequently found in the south and in the sensitive area, and are likely to be related to rainfall events. Bacteria are found in surface samples as well; indicating surface run off as a possible source.

Actual rainfall, especially just before or during sampling is an important steering factor in the concentrations measured. Rainfall is very scattered during the rainy season, and we believe so is the outflow of nutrients to the reef.

In short it is recommended to continue the monitoring of water quality over several years at the same frequency and locations. Next to the regular program, make sure that interval sampling during heavy rains are included as these moments indicate point source discharges which can be missed when rainy season is shifted. No locations should be discarded from the program. In order to prepare the monitoring program for future measures taken outside the current zone (Hato- Punt Vierkant) additional locations just north and south of the sensitive zone are advised to be included. The set of indicators can remain the same, with some slight adaptations such as the addition of coprostanol (measure of faecal discharge) and discard of ureum.

As nutrient levels are in a constant flux, data should be considered in an ecosystem context. Benthic surveys focusing on macro algae, turf algae and cyanobacteria, were not included in this study, but add largely to a whole ecosystem assessment on eutrophication issues.

Monitoring of water quality in the coastal zone alone will not provide satisfactory indication of the impact of the treatment plant in reducing emissions to the marine environment. To monitor the impact of the treatment plant, several factors should be considered. These are related to the treatment plant itself, groundwater quality, coastal water quality, benthic coverage and benthic quality. Actual reduction of emissions to the marine environment can be retrieved from monitoring and reporting of the efficiency of the treatment plant. Monitoring of groundwater wells provides knowledge on the groundwater quality that outflows to the reef. Water quality monitoring in the coastal zone gives knowledge on conditions contributing to environmental health. It is advised to synchronize the monitoring programs, and to analyze the datasets in a coherent way.

In the end, eutrophication is not the only pressure potentially affecting a reef. Besides the focus on the research related to the treatment plant it is advised to consider additional research on a “whole ecosystem basis” in which the contribution of other pressures as well, such as run off via canals and overflows of salinas with nutrients and sediments (in rainy season), fisheries impact and the impact of climate change/acidification on the reef are included. 

The National Nature Policy Plan 2001-2005 (NPP-5) and its current status of implementation was assessed as a first step towards a new Nature Policy Plan for the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba, St. Eustatius). The purpose of this exercise is to determine which action points of NPP-5 are still relevant, and to identify key new developments to be aware of when setting goals and strategies for the new Nature Policy Plan for the Caribbean Netherlands. The NPP-5 was the first formal nature policy plan of the Netherlands Antilles. It lists a total of 47 policy goals and projects in the text for the period 2001-2005. Based on these, 61 action points were listed in an Action Matrix for the period 2001-2005. Of these 31 were achieved to a high degree of completion between 2001 and 2010, notwithstanding the serious and chronic lack of both funds and manpower (NEPP-7). Based on this assessment, a total of 40 action points may be brought forward based on the NPP-5. These not only include most “one-time” action points not yet achieved but also several action points that were achieved but which are of an on-going nature.

While much has been achieved in terms of policy development and legal frameworks over the last 10 years, climate change implies that future nature management will be confronted with an increasingly rapid succession of major ecological problems such as coral bleaching, hurricane impacts, and invading species.

Our quick-scan assessment showed that policy development over the last 10 years has suffered significantly from challenges in terms of both capacity and funding, as well as in decision-making in reaching its goals. Controversial topics regarding “rules and regulations”, “cooperation”, and “financial instruments” largely failed to be achieved due to problems in the decision making process, whereas less controversial action points such as “reporting”, drawing up “plans”, doing “research” and “education”, especially suffered from a lack of capacity and funding.

Several main topics are identified that will need attention in the new nature management plan. The new nature policy will have to meet standard and basic policy needs, information and management needs, and also have to accommodate the latest conceptual developments and the pressing realities of global climate change and alien species invasions. Notable is that a large number of new and serious threats have come to the forefront since the NPP-5 was set 10 years ago.

Because the diverse, colourful and unique natural ecosystems of the Caribbean Netherlands also represent the single most important local economic resource on which to build long-term prosperity of the inhabitants of these islands, the nature policy plan needs to be recognized as much more than simply a way to protect nature and avert ecological crisis. It is in fact a key policy tool by which to actively safeguard and create economic well-being and opportunity for these islands.

The National Nature Policy Plan 2001-2005 (NPP-5) and its current status of implementation was assessed as a first step towards a new Nature Policy Plan for the Caribbean Netherlands (Bonaire, Saba, St. Eustatius). The purpose of this exercise is to determine which action points of NPP-5 are still relevant, and to identify key new developments to be aware of when setting goals and strategies for the new Nature Policy Plan for the Caribbean Netherlands. The NPP-5 was the first formal nature policy plan of the Netherlands Antilles. It lists a total of 47 policy goals and projects in the text for the period 2001- 2005. Based on these, 61 action points were listed in an Action Matrix for the period 2001-2005. Of these 31 were achieved to a high degree of completion between 2001 and 2010, notwithstanding the serious and chronic lack of both funds and manpower (NEPP-7). Based on this assessment, a total of 40 action points may be brought forward based on the NPP-5. These not only include most “one-time” action points not yet achieved but also several action points that were achieved but which are of an on-going nature.

While much has been achieved in terms of policy development and legal frameworks over the last 10 years, climate change implies that future nature management will be confronted with an increasingly rapid succession of major ecological problems such as coral bleaching, hurricane impacts, and invading species.

Our quick-scan assessment showed that policy development over the last 10 years has suffered significantly from challenges in terms of both capacity and funding, as well as in decision-making in reaching its goals. Controversial topics regarding “rules and regulations”, “cooperation”, and “financial instruments” largely failed to be achieved due to problems in the decision making process, whereas less controversial action points such as “reporting”, drawing up “plans”, doing “research” and “education”, especially suffered from a lack of capacity and funding.

Several main topics are identified that will need attention in the new nature management plan. The new nature policy will have to meet standard and basic policy needs, information and management needs, and also have to accommodate the latest conceptual developments and the pressing realities of global climate change and alien species invasions. Notable is that a large number of new and serious threats have come to the forefront since the NPP-5 was set 10 years ago.

Because the diverse, colourful and unique natural ecosystems of the Caribbean Netherlands also represent the single most important local economic resource on which to build long-term prosperity of the inhabitants of these islands, the nature policy plan needs to be recognized as much more than simply a way to protect nature and avert ecological crisis. It is in fact a key policy tool by which to actively safeguard and create economic well-being and opportunity for these islands. 

Findings

The main issues that Lac Bay faces were identified as follows:

1. Filling-in of Lac and reduced water circulation. Over-grazing by extensive livestock husbandry as well as non-sustainable land-use practices (e.g. barren fields) has resulted in an accelerated infilling of the bay with sediment, which hampers water circulation and causes mangrove die-off. This has lead to a gradual reduction of the effective nursery and habitat surface of the bay over the last decades.
2. Increase in uncontrolled recreational pressure. The Lac ecosystem has been modified or altered by construction of roads, the building of hotels, subterraneous nutrient enrichment by untreated sewage and more. Trampling is causing an important decrease in sea grass bed coverage in the bay. Endangered species such as turtles and nesting birds are vulnerable to human disturbance (Lac is intensively used for various kinds of recreation).
3. Litter contamination. Marine litter washed in from the open ocean and abandoned fishing lines in the deeper parts of Lac are big issues.
4. Algal blooms. While the outer reef is in very good health, many of the inner reef’s corals, gorgonians and sponges are being overgrown by the crustose calcareous alga Ramicrusta sp. This may cause a serious decline in living corals inside the bay.

Management Recommendations:

The highest priority is to start habitat restoration.

Direct enforcement of existing and new legislation is crucial as well as a permanent presence of one or more officials.

Filling-in of Lac and reduced water circulation

• Tackle the livestock overgrazing problem in the whole watershed.
• Regularly open up the former channels to the rear areas of the mangroves and re-establish circulation and water quality.
• Remove filled-in sediments and reforest with red mangroves in the rear stagnant areas of Lac so as to re-establish mangrove and fish nursery habitat.

Address increase in uncontrolled recreational pressure

• Set upper limits for the various users.
• Strictly limit public access to seagrass areas using a combination of zoning, demarcation and enforcement.
• Upgrade the visitor facilities designed to limit or steer user impact towards low sensitivity areas.
• Monitor the human use of the bay.
• Assess Lac’s current bird use and their vulnerability to disturbance.

Litter contamination

• Conduct regular cleanups with volunteers and monitor litter densities.
• Limit and regulate fishing inside of Lac.
• Conduct PAH  (polyaromatic hydrocarbon) studies of the water in Lac.

Algal blooms

• Periodic annual monitoring of enteric bacterial presence at high risk locations.
• Install a monitoring program to assess the nutrient situation in Lac at several locations.
• Continue monitoring of coral overgrowth by Ramicrusta sp.