León, R. de

Status and Trends of Bonaire's Coral Reefs in 2015: Slow but steady signs of resilience

Bonaire’s coral reefs remain among the healthiest in the Caribbean. Although the island’s reefs have suffered bleaching disturbances similar to those plaguing reefs throughout the Caribbean, they uniquely show signs of recovery. Here we highlight key findings from our March 2015 biennial coral reef monitoring expedition. We put the findings in the context of both the trends recorded since 2003 when we began our regular monitoring and the most recent research related to the factors controlling the structure and functioning of healthy coral reef ecosystems. 

Date
2015
Data type
Research report
Theme
Research and monitoring
Report number
6
Geographic location
Bonaire

Negative effects of gardening damselfish Stegastes planifrons on coral health depend on predator abundance

On Bonaire, we studied the effects of predator abundance and habitat availability on the abundance of the threespot damselfish Stegastes planifrons, a species that creates algal gardens at the expense of live coral cover. Across 21 sites, predator biomass ranged from 12 to 193 g m−2 (mean = 55.1; SD = 49.1) and benthic cover of S. planifrons’ preferred habitat (corals of the Orbicella species complex) ranged from 2.2 to 38.0% (mean = 14.3; SD = 9.6). Across these gradients, the local abundance of S. planifrons was significantly and negatively related to preda- tor biomass, but not to habitat availability. Increased local abundance of S. planifrons corre- sponded to an increasingly larger proportion of coral colonies affected by its ‘farming behavior’, resulting in an increased prevalence of coral disease. Thus, predators indirectly affected the com- position of reef communities around Bonaire by controlling damselfish abundance. Furthermore, the abundance of S. planifrons could not be correlated with its preferred habitat, despite such cor- relations having been observed elsewhere in the Caribbean. 

Date
2015
Data type
Scientific article
Theme
Research and monitoring
Geographic location
Bonaire

A baseline water quality assessment of the coastal reefs of Bonaire, Southern Caribbean

Bonaire is considered to harbor some of the best remaining coral reefs of the Caribbean, but faces multiple pressures including eutrophication. We measured multiple water quality indicators twice annually, from November 2011 to May 2013, at 11 locations at the west coast of Bonaire. This study resulted in 834 data points. DIN concentrations ranged from below quantification to 2.69 μmol/l, phosphate from below quantification to 0.16 μmol/l, and chlorophyll-a from 0.02 to 0.42 μg/l. Several indicators showed signs of eutrophication, with spatial and temporal effects. At southern and urban locations threshold levels of nitrogen were exceeded. This can be a result of brine leaching into sea from salt works and outflow of sewage water. Chlorophyll-a showed an increase in time, and phosphorus seemed to show a similar trend. These eutrophication indicators are likely to exceed threshold levels in near future if the observed trend continues. This is a cause for concern and action.

doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.06.054

 

Date
2014
Data type
Scientific article
Theme
Research and monitoring
Geographic location
Bonaire

Observations on the whale shark (Rhincodon typus) in the Dutch Caribbean

Abstract:

Records of whale sharks in the Caribbean are relatively sparse. Here we document 24 records of whale sharks (Rhincodon typus Smith 1882) for the Dutch Caribbean, four for the windward islands of Saba, St. Eustatius and St. Maarten, and twenty for the southern Caribbean leeward islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire. The results suggest a higher abundance of whale sharks in the southern, leeward part of the Dutch Caribbean, likely associated with seasonal upwelling-driven productivity known for the southeastern Caribbean area. A bimodal seasonal pattern as documented for Venezuela was not as pronounced in our findings for the Leeward Dutch Caribbean and whale sharks were recorded in 9 months of the year. In the Windward Dutch Caribbean all (4) records so far were for the winter months of December-February. Most records involved large and solitary animals in contrast to areas elsewhere suspected of being nursery habitat. According to local sources, whale sharks were most often associated with feeding tunas and sea surface swarms of crab megalopae. 

Date
2013
Data type
Scientific article
Theme
Research and monitoring
Geographic location
Aruba
Bonaire
Curacao
Saba
Saba bank
St. Eustatius
St. Maarten

Effectiveness of lionfish removal efforts in the southern Caribbean

Abstract:

Lionfish (Pterois volitans and P. miles) have spread rapidly throughout the Caribbean Sea since 1985, where they negatively impact native fish communities and therefore are considered by some as the most damaging invasive species in the Caribbean to date. To combat further population growth and spread of lionfish and to protect native fish communities, various Caribbean islands have started control efforts. On Bonaire, a removal program based on volunteers using spear guns was started immediately after the first lionfish was sighted in 2009, and a similar program was started on neighboring Curaçao 2 yr later. To determine the effectiveness of these removal efforts, differences in the density and biomass of lionfish were compared between areas in which lionfish were directly targeted during removal efforts (i.e. ‘fished’ areas) on Bonaire and areas where they were not (i.e. ‘unfished areas’) on both Bonaire and Curaçao. Lion- fish biomass in fished locations on Bonaire was 2.76-fold lower than in unfished areas on the same island and 4.14-fold lower than on unfished Curaçao. While removal efforts are effective at reducing the local number of lionfish, recruitment from unfished locations, such as those too deep for recreational diving and at dive sites that are difficult to access, will continuously offset the effects of removal efforts. Nevertheless, our results show that the immediate start and subsequent contin- uation of local removal efforts using volunteers is successful at significantly reducing the local density and biomass of invasive lionfish on small Caribbean islands. 

Date
2013
Data type
Scientific article
Theme
Research and monitoring
Geographic location
Bonaire
Curacao

Water quality of the coastal zone of Bonaire Results field monitoring 2011-2013

Approach:

Eutrophication is a common threat to the integrity of coral reefs as it can cause altered balance and integrity of the reef ecosystem. On the island Bonaire the former waste water treatment is limited which is a point of concern to the quality of the marine park. The reef of Bonaire faces nutrient input by various sources, of which enriched groundwater outflow from land is considered to be a substantial one. It is assumed that groundwater is enriched with nutrients e.g. due to leaking septic tanks.

In order to reduce the input of nutrients on the reef via enriched groundwater, a water treatment plant is being built on Bonaire. The treatment of sewage water is extended in 2012 with a sewage system covering the so called sensitive zone, the urbanised area from Hato to Punt Vierkant, including Kralendijk, the islands largest town. Based on the dimensions of the treatment plant and estimated connections to the plant, it is estimated that a total of 17.5 to 35 tonnes of nitrogen a year will be removed from the sensitive zone, and will not leach out to the sea. No estimates are known of the contribution of other sources to the total nitrogen load.

Limited information was available about concentrations of nutrients in the marine local environment and its eutrophic state. Therefore, Rijkswaterstaat asked IMARES to conduct a study on water quality aspects. The goal of this coastal monitoring study was to collect baseline water quality data to be able to study the impact of the water treatment plant in coming years. The following research questions are discussed based on the results:

  • Are environmental safe threshold levels of water quality exceeded?
  • Is temporal (over the years), or seasonal variation (November-May) of water quality observed?
  • Does water quality vary among locations or regions in Bonaire?
  • Based on experience and results, what are recommendations for future monitoring of water quality?

The study area was the west coast of Bonaire, and included 12 field locations. Water was sampled during early morning field trips at each location twice a year (May and November) starting November 2011 till May 2013. Indicators for water quality related to the nutrient status on the reef were selected and analyzed.

Based on their relevance to general water quality aspects and steering primary production, their relevance to the outflow of enriched (polluted) groundwater (and thus possible impact of the treatment plant in future) the following indicators were included:

  • Inorganic nutrients
    • NO2, NO3, NH4, PO4
    • DIN (calculated based on NO2+ NO3+ NH4)
  • Organic nutrients
    • Total nitrogen, ureum and total phosphorus
  • General water parameters
  • Chlorophyll-a
  • Fecal bacteria

Concentrations were assessed against environmental threshold values from peer reviewed literature or (inter)national standards. If not available, outlying concentrations were highlighted taking the 80th percentile as a representative level.

Results and discussion

Water quality indicators measured at the west coast of Bonaire show signals of eutrophic conditions. Spatial and temporal variation in water quality is however observed. At some locations and certain moments environmental safe levels of nutrients are exceeded (see overview of data in Figure 1- Figure 4). Especially at locations in the south and in the sensitive zone concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus exceed the threshold levels. Southern locations are probably affected by the salt pans, and locations in the sensitive zone by outflow of sewage water.

Furthermore, an increase of phosphorus and chlorophyll-a is observed in the last 2 years, whereas nitrogen (DIN) decreases slightly over the years. However, despite the decrease of nitrogen, its threshold levels are exceeded at Red Slave, Tori’s reef, Angel City, 18th Palm, Cliff. Phosphorus and chlorophyll-a do not yet exceed environmental threshold levels, but if the increase continues, this might be relevant in near future.

The risk of higher nutrient levels is that algal growth can outcompete corals, and can change the structure of the ecosystem. Furthermore, increased levels of nutrients affect the coral reefs integrity due to decreased stability of the skeleton.

The increase of bioavailable phosphate alters the nutrient ratio (DIN:SRP ratio) and species composition can evolve from this change in relative nutrient availability. Relating these data with observations in benthic composition and chlorophyll-a trends is advised to support this hypothesis.

Fecal bacteria numbers exceed several standards for human health safety. High fecal bacteria numbers are more frequently found in the south and in the sensitive area, and are likely to be related to rainfall events. Bacteria are found in surface samples as well; indicating surface run off as a possible source.

Actual rainfall, especially just before or during sampling is an important steering factor in the concentrations measured. Rainfall is very scattered during the rainy season, and we believe so is the outflow of nutrients to the reef.

In short it is recommended to continue the monitoring of water quality over several years at the same frequency and locations. Next to the regular program, make sure that interval sampling during heavy rains are included as these moments indicate point source discharges which can be missed when rainy season is shifted. No locations should be discarded from the program. In order to prepare the monitoring program for future measures taken outside the current zone (Hato- Punt Vierkant) additional locations just north and south of the sensitive zone are advised to be included. The set of indicators can remain the same, with some slight adaptations such as the addition of coprostanol (measure of faecal discharge) and discard of ureum.

As nutrient levels are in a constant flux, data should be considered in an ecosystem context. Benthic surveys focusing on macro algae, turf algae and cyanobacteria, were not included in this study, but add largely to a whole ecosystem assessment on eutrophication issues.

Monitoring of water quality in the coastal zone alone will not provide satisfactory indication of the impact of the treatment plant in reducing emissions to the marine environment. To monitor the impact of the treatment plant, several factors should be considered. These are related to the treatment plant itself, groundwater quality, coastal water quality, benthic coverage and benthic quality. Actual reduction of emissions to the marine environment can be retrieved from monitoring and reporting of the efficiency of the treatment plant. Monitoring of groundwater wells provides knowledge on the groundwater quality that outflows to the reef. Water quality monitoring in the coastal zone gives knowledge on conditions contributing to environmental health. It is advised to synchronize the monitoring programs, and to analyze the datasets in a coherent way.

In the end, eutrophication is not the only pressure potentially affecting a reef. Besides the focus on the research related to the treatment plant it is advised to consider additional research on a “whole ecosystem basis” in which the contribution of other pressures as well, such as run off via canals and overflows of salinas with nutrients and sediments (in rainy season), fisheries impact and the impact of climate change/acidification on the reef are included. 

Date
2013
Data type
Research report
Theme
Research and monitoring
Report number
C158/13
Geographic location
Bonaire

Bonaire National Marine Park. Tropical Storm Omar; Report of Reef Condition

Abstract:

On October 14 and 15, 2008 Tropical Storm Omar reached Bonaire. Wind speed averaging 18 to 20 knots from SW started at 3 am on October 14 and lasted for 48 hours. The minimum distance between the center of the storm and Bonaire was 200 km in a NW direction and the maximum wind speed at that moment was 32 to 33 knots. 

A total of 27 sites were surveyed. In the West, from Karpata to Vista Blue on the leeward side of Bonaire (20 sites) and around Klein Bonaire (7 sites). 

Date
2008
Data type
Research report
Theme
Research and monitoring
Geographic location
Bonaire
Author

Lac Bonaire - Restoration Action Spear Points, September 2010

Lac Bay, Bonaire is the most important mangrove and seagrass area of Bonaire and has been undergoing steady ecological decline in the last decades. Based on an initial assessment of conservation management issue and potential solutions, as, conducted by IMARES in June 2010, the Dutch Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (LNV) asked IMARES to return to Bonaire to work with Stinapa Bonaire to choose narrower priorities and jointly make a short-list of topics as a working document for cooperation and action. In the beginning of September, site visits and discussions were held in Bonaire with the manager of Lac Bay and various stakeholders to identify and agree on priority issues for action. This working report gives the results of that visit.

Four action spear point projects were identified, based on urgency and feasibility based on local Bonaire and Dutch IMARES expertise. The projects are as follows:

1. Mangrove restoration demonstration pilot study
The basic objective is to reestablish water depth and tidal connection in high marsh salt areas that have resulted from infilling with sediment, and restore them as effective mangrove and low marsh fish nursery habitats. By collecting baseline data before the restoration activities take place, it will be possible to monitor and compare and assess changes in fauna and flora at the restoration sites and hence evaluate the effectiveness of the measures implemented.

2. Baseline ecological study of the zonation of aquatic communities
The goal is to complete a scientific description of Lac’s aquatic community zonation as it exists at landscape level today. This will provide the framework against which large-scale community change and effectiveness of mitigation measures can be monitored and evaluated.

3. Recreational and land use survey for Lac Bay and its catchment area
The goal is to identify user problems and potential solutions by mapping and assessing user density and pressures in Lac

4. Study of avifaunal habitat use of Lac Bay
The goal is to identify bird habitat use problems and potential solutions by assessing habitat use of Lac by birds during the migratory season.

(A fifth project for implementation by Stinapa and Dienst LVV was identified)
5. Lac mangrove channel clearing project
Re-establish water flow from the Bakuna dam to Lac using a pipe system.

The Lac mangrove channel clearing project of Stinapa was reviewed and judged to be valuable and important. The baseline study of zonation of aquatic communities (project 2) is urgently needed in this respect to allow short and long-term evaluation of this project which need to become a structural part of Lac Bay management. Routine mangrove channel maintenance was identified as ideal work for involvement of Bonaire youths and volunteers, to rekindle public involvement in caring for Lac and its rich natural and cultural-historical heritage. 

Management Recommendations:

A project plan is presented by which all four projects can be delivered by December 2012. These projects can count on government and broad community support. In this all, Stinapa indicated to be willing to provide basic free lodging to interns and scientists at their science accommodations at the entrance of Washington-Slagbaai National Park. The ability and willingness of IMARES to recruit and guide students and interns for these projects was an important selection criterion to help restrain total project costs. The action spear points will, nevertheless, require funding as well as permits from the Island Government of Bonaire. With LNV various funding options were reviewed and discussed, and the need for permits was discussed with DROB (Dienst Ruimtelijke Ontwikkeling en Beheer) Bonaire. DROB envisioned few problems with the required permits. The visit was concluded by the joint resolve to work out ways to maintain momentum and proceed towards the implementation phase.

Date
2010
Data type
Research report
Theme
Governance
Education and outreach
Research and monitoring
Report number
C131/10
Geographic location
Bonaire

Water quality monitoring Bonaire. Results monitoring November 2011 and recommendations for future research

Abstract

On the island Bonaire, eutrophication is a point of serious concern, affecting the coral reefs in the marine park. Eutrophication can cause altered balance of the reef ecosystem because algae can outcompete corals, leading to a disturbed composition and deterioration of the biodiversity of the reef. The reef of Bonaire faces nutrient input by various sources, of which enriched groundwater outflow from land to the reef is considered to be a substantial one. Groundwater is enriched with nutrients e.g. due to leaking septic tanks.

In order to reduce the input of nutrients on the reef via sewage water, a water treatment plant is being built on Bonaire. The treatment of sewage water will be extended in 2012 with a sewage system covering the so called sensitive zone, the urbanised area from Hato to Punt Vierkant. Based on the dimensions of the treatment plant and estimated connections to the plant, it can be assumed that a total of 17520- 35040 kg of Nitrogen a year is removed from the sensitive zone, and will not leach out to the sea at the western coast of Bonaire. No estimates are known of the contribution of other sources to the total nitrogen load.

At the moment limited information is available about concentrations of nutrients in the marine environment. Therefore, Rijkswaterstaat Waterdienst asked IMARES to conduct a monitoring study. The goal of this coastal monitoring study was to collect baseline water quality data to be able to study the effectiveness of the water treatment plant in coming years.

The study consisted of two phases and resulted in two reports:

1. recommendations for baseline monitoring in 2011,
2. monitoring, data evaluation, and recommendations

In this second report, monitoring data are presented and discussed, and recommendations for future monitoring are provided. Options for dissemination of data and data management are presented.

Monitoring:

In November 2011, field monitoring was performed at ten locations at the west coast, at two depths -6m and -20 m. Three of these locations lay with the “sensitive zone” and are suspect of enriched groundwater, being a diffuse source of nutrients. Other locations are regarded as relative reference locations, laying further offshore, north or south from the sensitive zone. The prevailing current is from south to north. The reference locations might be influenced indirectly by the (diffuse) source under study, or can be under pressure by other nutrient sources as e.g. the salt company in the south.

Monitoring data are compared to environmental threshold values for tropical ecosystems. In Figure I, a summary of this evaluation is presented. Data show that during this monitoring study, eutrophic conditions, based on DIN concentration, are observed at four out of ten locations: Habitat, Angel City, Cargill and Red Slave. No clear difference in eutrophic state between the sensitive zone and other locations is observed. Cargill, Red Slave and Angel city are influenced by percolation of enriched groundwater from the salt pans.

Nutrient concentrations in the “sensitive zone” do not clearly differ from reference observations at e.g. Playa Funchi, Karpata and Klein Bonaire, but bacteria counts do. Bacteria numbers at Habitat and Playa Lechi exceed EU, EPA and Caribbean Blue flag standards. Stable nitrogen isotope ratios in macro algae show large variability and low average values near background levels, and are not specifically indicative for nitrogen related to sewage sources. Along developed coastlines with e.g. addition of inorganic fertilizer with low δ15N values will complicate the study for a sewage signal. Analysing δ15N and organic N in groundwater should be considered in next monitoring in order to explain the low ratio found in this study. Statistical similarity analysis between locations shows no similarity and relation to position of the location (within sensitive zone or reference). Location “Habitat” showed a clear dissimilarity compared to the other nine locations, and it is assumed brine effluent from WEB could be a steering factor in this observation.

Conclusions:

The study of November 2011 leads to the following conclusions:

  • Benthic surveys were not included in this study, and add largely to a whole ecosystem assessment on eutrophication. In upcoming research this should be included.
  • Based on nutrient levels, in the south and in one location in the sensitive zone a eutrophic status was observed. The other locations did not have nutrient levels harming the development of a healthy coral reef, based on nutrient concentrations alone. Nutrients levels are however in a constant flux, and data should be considered in an ecosystem context.
  • Enriched groundwater with nutrients from sewage is not the only source of nutrients. Other sources as nutrients from the salt pans in the south and from brine near Habitat probably add to the eutrophic status at these locations. Furthermore percolation and surface run off from Salinas and stormwater via roois are probably a source of nutrients as the isotope values at the other locations are low too.
  • Monitoring in the coastal zone alone, will not provide adequate indication of the effectiveness of the treatment plant. Monitoring in the coastal zone is effective to detect areas at risk, and to detect long term changes in overall water quality (= so called “surveillance monitoring”).
  • Monitoring in the coastal zone should be supported by additional so called “investigative monitoring” at the sources to quantify the relative contribution of each of these sources in order to be able to discuss additional measures.

Management Recommendations:

Above mentioned preliminary conclusions need to be considered using additional monitoring. Based on a one time monitoring activity no definite conclusions are possible related to the treatment plant.

“Surveillance” monitoring in the coastal zone will identify areas at risk, determine long-term changes in water quality, and can be used to evaluate environmental risk assessment.
Indicators to include are: nutrients (NH4, NO2, NO3, DIN, PO4, Total P, organic (kjeldahl) nitrogen) bacteria, benthic composition. The added value of N15 is questioned because of the average low response and high variability. A reference locations further offshore has to be added.

A clear advise on minimum frequency cannot yet be given as seasonal and diurnal variance is evident, but the extent not yet identified. Seasonal and diurnal dynamics (and thus variance) in nutrient availability is common at reef systems. Factors steering this seasonal variance are e.g wet and dry season, dynamics in regional upwellings, atmospheric pressure, biannual tidal regime, and irregular discharge in both quality and quantity. Suggestions for getting grip on this variance is provided in the report. A minimum frequency of monitoring in dry (May/June) and wet season (October/November) is suggested by parties involved. This frequency is a starting point, but could however be too low to detect significant trends. Future data have to be evaluated and monitoring has to be adapted according to the new results. Integration of these data with benthic survey data is considered to be a priority.

“Investigative monitoring” should be directed to measurements and evaluation of the quantity and quality of the sources and can be used to establish causal relations. In relation to the effectiveness of the treatment plant, it is advised to direct “investigative” monitoring to:

  • quantity and quality of the influent and effluent of the Water Treatment Plant
  • quantity and quality of other sources of nutrients via e.g. groundwater monitoring
    • Industrial sources (salt company, WEB brine effluent)
    • Salinas and roois

Indicators to include are: BOD, COD, bacteria, nutrients (NH4, NO2, NO3, DIN, kjeldahl N, PO4, total P), and 15N. Scenarios for field work are presented and cost estimates provided in the report.

Synchronization and support of STINAPA research

Options to integrate and support ongoing research by STINAPA are discussed in the report. The processing of obtained data by the benthic surveys is time consuming and therefore not yet available. Second subject is the dissemination of results from project “light and motion” by the university of California. These data could very well fit into an exploration of remote sensing as a cost effective monitoring technique for water quality. Both subjects could contribute largely to the assessment of water quality in the coastal zone of Bonaire and aid management decisions. Data analysis via e.g. student projects should be considered as an option.

Data management and dissemination of results:

Regarding data management and dissemination of results it is advised to further explore and to contribute to the development of the WUR portal on BES data and use the ISO standard by SeaDataNet to describe metadata. The WUR portal provides the opportunity of storing all BES data in a format of choice. Excel tables and figures, including the reports can be uploaded, and could for the time being be suitable enough to disseminate the data. The portal is under development and options for dissemination will be gradually extended and improved. If chosen to describe the monitoring and data with a metadata format prescribed by international standards, in time, the (meta) data could be synchronised with any other system.

The location of the portal is http://scomp0703.wur.nl/bioplanbes/. 

 

Date
2012
Data type
Research report
Theme
Research and monitoring
Report number
C028/12
Geographic location
Bonaire

Marine debris in mangroves and on the seabed: Largely-neglected litter problems

While the scarcity of up-to-date data on beach litter contamination in the Caribbean has been stressed in several recent studies, we here point to the even greater paucity of published work on litter in mangroves and on the shallow tropical seafloor. During collection of baseline data on beach litter contamination on the Southeastern Caribbean island of Bonaire we also collected preliminary data that may serve to highlight the need for further studies on these largely neglected litter issues.

...

Marine litter contamination is a wide-spread problem and considered to be one of the most serious threats to sustainable use of the region’s marine and coastal resources. Mangrove litter and shallow submerged litter contamination figure significantly in Bonaire and we have made practical recommendations to help address these problems in a separate report to government. In presenting this synopsis here, we aim to draw scientific attention to these largely neglected facets of the litter problem and hope to see further studies to assess the extent of these problems in the Wider Caribbean.

Date
2013
Data type
Scientific article
Theme
Research and monitoring
Geographic location
Bonaire